Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: Nutritive values of selected species

Wild edible plants form an important constituent of traditional diets in the Himalaya. In the Sikkim Himalaya a total of 190 species have been screened as edible species out of which nearly 47 species come to the market. The present paper deals with nutritive values of 27 most commonly consumed wild edible plants in the Sikkim Himalaya. Of 27 plant species that were analyzed for their nutritive values, 22 were edible for their fruits and five for leaves/shoots. Among different plant parts, generally higher nutrient concentration was recorded for leaves, followed by new shoots and fruits. For different species the crude fiber content ranged between 2.15–39.90%, and the total soluble salts between 4.66–21.00%, and the vitamin C content from 6–286 mg/100 g. The fat content was determined high in the fruits ofCastanopsis hystrix, Machilus edulis, andCinnamomum species, while the protein content was highest inHippophae rhamnoides, Cucumis melo, andEleagnus latifolia. The total carbohydrate content ranged from 32–88% in the fruits of various wild edibles, the reducing sugar from 1.25–12.42%, total sugar from 2.10–25.09%, the lignin content varied from 9.05–39.51%, the hemicellulose between 25.63–55.71% and cellulose content varied from 9.57–33.19% in different species. Among the various macronutrients estimated in the plant samples of different wild edible species, nitrogen was present in highest quantity, followed by potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sodium. Micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, and copper contents were analyzed in different plant parts of various wild edible species. The iron content was higher in leaves and new shoots. The nutritive values of certain wild edible species determined in this study are comparable with various commercial fruits. It is suggested that a few wild edible species need to be grown for commercial cultivation and adopted in the traditional agroforestry systems, which will lead to reduced pressure on them in natural forest stands as well as producing economic benefits for poor farmers.     

Dietary use of wild plant resources in the Sikkim Himalaya, India

The edible wild plants are greatly valued throughout the Himalayan region and serve as an important source of food for indigenous communities. This paper describes the botanical richness, elevational distribution and dietary use of the edible wild plant resources from the Sikkim Himalaya (Eastern Himalaya), many with promising potential. A total of 190 wild plant species have been screened from the Sikkim Himalaya, this derived from 143 genera and 78 families and accounting for nearly 15% of total edible wild plants resources of India. Of the total, 65% were edible for their fruits, 22% for leaves/shoots, 7% for flowers and 3% for roots/ rhizomes. Nearly 91 wild edible species were recorded from low-hills, 70 from mid-hills and 28 species from high-hill areas. Within Sikkim state, the North and East districts represent maximum diversity of edible wild plants due to the wilderness and inaccessibility to most of the habitats. An average rural family annually consumes nearly 8 types of edible wild plants, and a few species provide over five meals in a season. Selected plants also form a source of earning to a few families that sell them in local markets. It is suggested that the high diversity of edible plants needs to be conserved for future use. Some species may be grown in traditional agroforestry systems and on marginal lands of otherwise low agricultural value. Such measures may help protect wild plant resources in their natural habitats.     

Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: Marketing, value addition and implications for management

This paper presents data on marketing, value addition and management concerns of the wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. At least 23 weekly markets, locally called ‘ Hats ’, have been identified in the state, and three markets, viz. Gangtok, Namchi and Singtam, were studied in detail, for one year, with reference to the availability, quantity sold and retailers involved with the marketing of wild edible species. A total of 44 wild edible species have been recorded to be sold annually in the three markets. Among all the species,Spondias axillaris was sold in highest quantity and more retailers were involved in its business than for any other wild edible plant. Other important species wereMachilus edulis, Diplazium esculentum, Eleagnus latifolia,Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Agaricus and Baccaurea sapida. The rural economics of wild edible plants is estimated to be some 140 tons per annum, and the prices for various species have increased over the years. At Gangtok, prices increased 3 to 6 times from 1981 to 1996–1997. Analysis of the field data showed that the wild edible plants were an important source of income to the plant dwellers and subsistence for farm families. Value addition was done to a few wild edible species, and cost-benefit analysis showed that the income from the fruits could be increased by at least 3–5 times after making pickles, squash and jam. It was recorded that plant dwellers have open access for the collection of these plant resources, which often leads to their over exploitation, and the local state government at present lacks policies and strategies for protecting and promoting wild edible plants in any of its programs. It is suggested that suitable conservation practices and policies need to be formulated to conserve these plants in the wild habitats within the state.     

Phytomelatonin in the leaves and fruits of wild perennial plants

Phytomelatonin has been documented in numerous flowering plants, mostly in cultivated species consumed by humans. Although frugivorous animals feed on fruits, the phytomelatonin content of these organs has hardly ever been tested in wild plants. The aim of this study was to determine the levels of phytomelatonin in the leaves and fleshy fruits of 31 wild perennial species known to be eaten by herbivorous and frugivorous mammals and birds. Considerable levels of phytomelatonin were found in the leaves of all the tested species, and some contained melatonin in their fruits as well. The melatonin content was found to vary significantly in different life forms (trees, shrubs, and climbers), with trees possessing the highest levels. The analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the phytomelatonin levels in the leaves and the fruits of various species. However, the concentration found in the fruits was generally lower than that found in the leaves of the same species. Despite the presence of phytomelatonin in the fleshy fruits of different families, there was no noticeable common attribute among them. Phytomelatonin was exhibited in both the seeds and the pulp, with no obvious preference for either one. Although it was determined that ingested melatonin enters the bloodstream of birds and mammals, its specific role is still not certain. The potential impact of edible phytomelatonin on the circadian rhythm of herbivores and frugivores is discussed on the basis of these findings.     

锡林郭勒典型草原地区蒙古族野生食用植物传统知识研究

选择当地牧民作为信息报告人,运用访谈和证据标本采集鉴定等民族植物学研究方法对内蒙古锡林郭勒典型草原地区蒙古族野生食用植物进行了调查。结果表明,锡林郭勒典型草原地区蒙古族民间野生食用植物共有29种和2变种;食用部位包括全株、地上部位、根、茎、鳞茎、叶、花、果和种子,其中叶是使用频率最高的部位。民间食用方式可分为野生粮食、蔬菜、水果、茶用、调料和零食6种类型。其中,蔬菜用野生植物最多,其次为茶用和调料用植物。当地民间对野生食用植物通常采取生食和熟食两种方法。采用腌制或干燥是当地民间对野生食用植物原料或加工品进行保存的主要方法。羊肉、牛肉、鲜奶和酸奶是当地蒙古族用野生植物烹饪各种食物和调制奶茶时的必用原料,具有地区和民族特色。     

野生藏酋猴冬季食物组成及营养成分

觅食是获取营养物质和能量的重要途经。对于栖息在四季分明地区的灵长类动物而言,低温以及食物资源相对匮乏的冬季是其生存和生长发育的瓶颈期。本研究以安徽黄山的野生藏酋猴（Macaca thibetana）天湖山群为对象,于2019年11月至2020年1月采用瞬时扫描取样法（Instantaneous scan sampling）采集猴群觅食行为数据,并分析其冬季食物组成及食物中各化学成分含量对取食的影响。结果显示,野生藏酋猴在冬季共取食23科31属34种植物,主要包括壳斗科（Fagaceae,21.62%）、樟科（Lauraceae,17.57%）、蔷薇科（Rosaceae,8.11%）的植物,取食部位以叶片（66.22%）和果实（种子）（24.32%）为主。不同取食部位的水分、总糖、淀粉、脂肪、单宁等成分存在显著差异。其中,叶片的水分含量高于果实（种子）、茎和芽,茎和果实（种子）含有较高的总糖,果实（种子）的淀粉和脂肪含量最高,芽的单宁含量最高。此外,取食植物中的总糖含量高于非取食植物。结果表明,野生藏酋猴适应寒冷冬季与食物匮乏的觅食策略是对植物种类、植物部位及其主要营养成分的综合结果。     

The maintenance of wild edible plant gathering in a Mapuche community of patagonia

The Mapuche communities of Argentina and Chile have a vast knowledge of useful plants from temperate forests of Patagonia. However, present processes of transculturation and uprooting seem to have caused a decline in wild plant gathering. This is a case study of a Mapuche community that now lives far away from the forests that their ancestors inhabited. Nineteen families from the Rams Mapuche community (83% of the total population) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire, with the aim of finding out which edible wild species are known and still used, and what factors, according to the people perception, have caused the decline. People mentioned a total of 49 edible wild plants including four types of resources: Araucaria araucana seeds, the fruits and roots of bushes and herbs, and leaves of edible weeds. Factors such as the difficulty access to forests which no longer belong to them, drought and soil deterioration from overgrazing were indicated by people acting negatively on the preservation of the knowledge of plants in the younger generations.     

Medicinal plants in peril due to climate change in the Himalaya

Climate change is causing many irreversible changes in the Himalayan ecosystems. In this study, an attempt was made to understand the ecological response of medicinal plant species to changing climate conditions in the Sikkim Himalaya, a part of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Maximum Entropy Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) approach was used to analyze the potential habitat distribution of 163 medicinal plant species in current and future climates (2050, 2070). An attempt was also made to identify the most suitable areas for conservation and test the effectiveness of the existing Protected Area (PA) network in conserving medicinal plant species in current and future climate scenarios through the Habitat Suitability and Overlap Analyses. SDM analyses revealed that the majority of the medicinal plant species are found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions in the Sikkim Himalaya (300–2000 m) at present. In future climates, however, most of the species are likely to show an upward and northward shift in their distributions. Maximum species-rich regions are likely to shift by 200 m and 400 m in 2050 and 2070, respectively. A total of 13–16% of medicinal plant species currently found in the region are likely to lose their existing potential habitats by 2050 and 2070. The results highlight that species that are restricted to specific localities and have a narrow elevational distribution are the most vulnerable species and likely to go extinct due to climate change in the Himalaya. Habitat suitability analyses indicated that elevations ranging from 860 to 2937 m serve as highly suitable habitats for medicinal plant species in Sikkim Himalaya. Consequently, these areas can be focused for conservation actions in order to mitigate the effect of climate change. The results of Overlap Analysis indicated that out of 8 PAs in Sikkim Himalaya, only 5 PAs are effective in the conservation of medicinal plant species in current and future climates. The boundaries of existing PAs need to be expanded in order to accommodate the upward shifts in the spatial distribution of species, especially in the case of those PAs that are located in the lower elevations or tropical regions. This study provides a novel integrated framework for use of ecological informatics in assessing the species vulnerability to climate change and planning conservation priorities.     

A global comparison of the nutritive values of forage plants grown in contrasting environments

Forage plants are valuable because they maintain wild and domesticated herbivores, and sustain the delivery of meat, milk and other commodities. Forage plants contain different quantities of fibre, lignin, minerals and protein, and vary in the proportion of their tissue that can be digested by herbivores. These nutritive components are important determinants of consumer growth rates, reproductive success and behaviour. A dataset was compiled to quantify variation in forage plant nutritive values within- and between-plant species, and to assess variation between plant functional groups and bioclimatic zones. 1255 geo-located records containing 3774 measurements of nutritive values for 136 forage plant species grown in 30 countries were obtained from published articles. Spatial variability in forage nutritive values indicated that climate modified plant nutritive values. Forage plants grown in arid and equatorial regions generally contained less digestible material than those grown in temperate and tundra regions; containing more fibre and lignin, and less protein. These patterns may reveal why herbivore body sizes, digestion and migration strategies are different in warmer and drier regions. This dataset also revealed the capacity for variation in the nutrition provided by forage plants, which may drive consumer species coexistence. The proportion of the plant tissue that was digestible ranged between species from 2 to 91%. The amount of fibre contained within plant material ranged by 23–90%, protein by 2–36%, lignin by 1–21% and minerals by 2–22%. On average, grasses and tree foliage contained the most fibre, whilst herbaceous legumes contained the most protein and tree foliage contained the most lignin. However, there were individual species within each functional group that were highly nutritious. This dataset may be used to identify forage plant species or mixtures of species from different functional groups with useful nutritional traits which can be cultivated to enhance livestock productivity and inform wild herbivore conservation strategies.     

Study on Traditional Knowledge of Wild Edible Plants Used by the Mongolians in Xilingol Typical Steppe Area*

The local herdsmen were served as informants, methods of interviews and voucher specimen collection and identification have been used to conduct ethnobotanical field investigations on wild edible plants in the Xilingol typical steppe area, Inner Mongolia. The results show that 29 species and two varieties of wild plants used for food and drinks by the Mongolians in Xilingol typical steppe area. The edible parts of the plants are whole plant, aerial parts, roots, stems, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits or/and seeds respectively. Among them, the leaf is the most widely used part. Six categories of food uses based on the mode of folk edible use were established to classify wild food plants, including wild grain, vegetables, fruit, substitute for tea, seasoning, and snacks. Among them, vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used as substitute for tea, and plants used for seasoning. Wild plants are usually eaten raw or cooked by the local people. Raw materials and prepared food from wild plants are preserved through the method of pickling and drying. A distinguishing feature of region and ethnic group is that mutton, beef, fresh milk and yoghourt are necessarily used in cooking dish and making milk tea from wild plants by local Mongolians.     

Contribution of NaCl excretion to salt resistance of Aeluropus littoralis (Willd) Parl

Aeluropus littoralis is a perennial halophyte, native to coastal zones. Although it is usually exposed to high saline, this plant grows normally without toxicity symptoms. In order to assess leaf salt excretion, different growth parameters, Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), Mg(2+) and Cl(-) concentrations, as well as excreted ions were examined in plants grown for 2 months in the presence of various salinity levels (0-800 mM NaCl). In addition, salt crystals, salt glands and other leaf epidermal structures were investigated. Results showed that total plant growth decreased linearly with increase to medium salinity. This reduction concerns mainly shoot growth. In addition, this species was able to maintain its shoot water content at nearly 50% of the control even when subjected to 800 mM NaCl. Root water content seemed to be unaffected by salt. Sodium and chloride ion contents in shoots and in roots increased with salinity concentrations, in contrast to our observation for potassium. However, calcium and magnesium contents were not greatly affected by salinity. Excreted salts in A. littoralis leaves were in favor of sodium and chloride, but against potassium, calcium and magnesium which were retained in plants. Sodium and chloride were excreted from special salt glands, which were scattered on the both leaf surfaces. In addition to salt glands, papillae were the most frequent epidermal structure found on A. littoralis leaves, and are likely involved in A. littoralis salt resistance.     

The Investigation on Utilization of Wild Medicinal Plants in Dietary Culture of Quanzhou,Southern Fujian

An ethnobotanical survey on the medicinal plant species marketed in Quanzhou, southern Fujian, was conducted in order to document traditional medicinal knowledge and application of medicinal plants in dietary. In addition to literature review, data was obtained using ethnobotanical tools and methods, including personal interviews during field trips, collecting herbarium specimens, and species identification by cross referencing. The results showed that: 1) There are 148 wild medicinal species, belonging to 56 plant families and 117 genera present in Quanzhou, southern Fujian. Among them, 46 species are edible wild herbs, 37 species are medicinal plants, 38 species are used as tea substituting plants or herbal tea,22 species are wild fruits, 4 species are used as spices and 1 species is used to make bean jelly; 2) The plant families which comprise a major part of the pool are Compositae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Liliaceae, Orchidaceae and Moraceae; 3) This study explored the utilization of the medicinal plants in Quanzhou area, and proposed methods to inherit the culture of using wild plants in dietary, as well as methods to conserve the edible medicinal wild plant resources.     

湘西州少数民族膳食结构中常见野生植物调查研究

湘西土家族苗族自治州位于武陵山区东部 ,属华中植物区系 ,植物资源十分丰富 ,对全州 8个县市的调研表明 ,野生食用植物是当地少数民族传统膳食结构中的重要组成成分。文章报导了常见野果、野菜等食物植物 42科 6 3属 83种及其利用价值、采集时令和食用方法 ,并就该地区野生食用植物资源的保护和开发提出了对策和措施。     

Wild foods from Southern Ecuador

This study documents 354 species of wild edible plants consumed in southern Ecuador, an area with a very high species diversity. Southern Ecuador is inhabited by Mestizo farmers and by small communities of indigenous Shuar and Saraguros. The majority (85%) of the 354 species have edible fruits. Various regional food and drink preparations in which wild plants are used are described. Most (86%), however, are consumed raw. Thirtyeight percent have additional uses, primarily as fuelwood and timber. The fruits or other edible parts of 21 species are sold at local and regional markets. Three new species were discovered during this study.     

Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain

This paper compiles and evaluates the ethnobotanical data currently available on wild plants traditionally used for human consumption in Spain. Forty-six ethnobotanical and ethnographical sources from Spain were reviewed, together with some original unpublished field data from several Spanish provinces. A total of 419 plant species belonging to 67 families was recorded. A list of species, plant parts used, localization and method of consumption, and harvesting time is presented. Of the seven different food categories considered, green vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used to prepare beverages, wild fruits, and plants used for seasoning, sweets, preservatives, and other uses. Important species according to the number of reports include: Foeniculum vulgare , Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum , Origanum vulgare , Rubus ulmifolius , Silene vulgaris , Asparagus acutifolius , and Scolymus hispanicus . We studied data on the botanical families to which the plants in the different categories belonged, overlapping between groups and distribution of uses of the different species. Many wild food plants have also been used for medicinal purposes and some are considered to be poisonous. This review highlights the rich traditional knowledge on edible plants that has remained in rural Spain. Until recently, many wild plants were used as dietary supplements. However, most of this knowledge survives only in the memory of the elderly, and will probably disappear in a few decades.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 27–71.     

Ethnobiological notes on some tribes of Arunachal Pradesh,northeastern India

A total of 171 plant species used by the Nishis, the Hill M iris, the Sulungs, and the Apatanis of Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India; 12 animal species used by the Nishis were identified. Of the total plant species recorded 38% of the total were leafy vegetables and 28% were edible fruits. Others were used for food, liquor, medicine, household goods, traditional dresses, dyes, tattoos, fish and animal poisons, or for salt extraction. The Sulungs use starch obtained from the pith ofMetroxylon sagu as a staple food. The extensive use of wild plants and animals suggests that the tribes of northeastern India rely heavily on forest resources. The importance of conserving these in the light of rapid conversion of rainforests is emphasized.     

Nutritional ecology of Preuss's red colobus monkey (Colobus badius preussi Rahm 1970) in Korup National Park, Cameroon

Studies on the nutritive ecology of red colobus monkeys (Colobus badius preussi) in Korup National Park, Cameroon, investigated food plants and the parts eaten as well as nutritive values of the various food items. Food plants were identified through direct observations and collected for laboratory determination of nutrient content. Food plants were analysed for crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE), nitrogen‐free‐extractive (NFE) and total ash (A). A total of seventeen species belonging to nine different families were identified as food plants for red colobus. Food and feeding habits showed that the species were highly folivorous, tending to prefer the young leaves of food plants. Lecomtedoxa klaineana (27.0%) and Xylopia aethiopica (22.2%) of families Sapotaceae and Annonaceae, respectively, constituted about 50% of total food items consumed. Results of nutrient composition indicated individual nutrients varied significantly (P < 0.01) with food species.     

Prospects for sustainable use and development of wild food plants in Ethiopia

Field and herbarium studies on wild flowering plants of Ethiopia furnished 203 species consumed by the community. These account for about 3% of the higher plant species in the country and comprise herbs (37%), shrubs (32%), and trees (31%). Species with edible fruits contributed to 61.6%, leaves 27.7%, stems 14.4%, roots 13.3%, and seeds 10.3%. About 15% are considered famine foods. Forest habitats gave 102 species, woodlands 99, grasslands 83, bushlands 52, rocky and dry areas 47, cultivated places 41, riverbanks 31, and roadsides/ disturbed areas 25. The altitudinal distribution gave 148 species between 1500-2400 m, 144 below 1500 m and 81 above 2400 m a.s.l. Some species are wild and others slightly or strongly associated with humans, revealing a living analogue of the wild-semiwild-domesticated continuum. Full-scale ethnobotanical studies, implementing appropriate conservation measures and domesticating and integrating promising taxa into existing crops are favored for the purpose of diversification of food sources, ensuring food security, and maintenance of biodiversity and environmental integrity.     

野生水芹与旱芹的营养成分比较分析

为研究野生水芹的营养价值,以湖北野生水芹和旱芹为材料,对新鲜叶片和叶柄的主要营养成分进行了比较分析。结果表明:两种材料叶片和叶柄的淀粉、粗纤维和维生素B1含量的差异不明显,游离氨基酸和维生素B2含量比旱芹低,但野生水芹含有丰富的蛋白质和钙,其叶柄中可溶性糖和磷的含量分别达29.70 mg/g和0.77mg/g,分别比旱芹高57.23%和37.50%;其叶片维生素C、铁含量分别达0.19 mg/g和0.35 mg/g,比旱芹分别高137.50%和191.67%,整株黄酮类物质含量是旱芹含量的2倍。这说明野生水芹具有较高的食用价值,是一种适合作为涝渍地区保护性开发的野生蔬菜资源。     

桂西壮族饮食文化中野生食用植物的民族植物学研究

运用民族植物学方法,以广西西部的1市1区10县为研究区域,对桂西壮族饮食文化中利用野生食用植物的传统知识进行了调查和研究.结果显示:桂西壮族饮食文化中常用的野生食用植物有46科102种,其中菊科(Asteraceae)种类最多(13种),其次为苋科(Amaranthaceae)、伞形科(Umbelliferae)、蔷薇科(Rosaceae)和豆科(Leguminosae)(各6种).食用部位常为嫩枝叶、果实、全株、花、根和茎等,其中,食用部位为嫩枝叶的种类最多(48种),食用部位为根和茎的种类最少(8种),食用部位为果实、全株和花的种类分别有18、17和11种.食用方法有炒、煮汤、生食、凉拌、水煮、茶饮、上汤和配菜等,常见的食用方法为炒和煮汤.采摘时间主要为春季和夏季,部分种类可全年采食.不同区域的壮族民众对野生食用植物的选择具有随机性,主要依据方便、易得、适用、无污染等标准进行选择,且生活在不同区域、不同环境的壮族民众对野生食用植物的选择具有较明显差异.综合分析结果表明:桂西壮族民众拥有丰富的利用野生食用植物的传统知识,具有食用植物种类丰富、食用部位多样、食用方法多样等特点,形成了富有民族特色的饮食文化.此外,根据研究结果,对桂西壮族特色饮食文化的保护和传承进行了探讨,并对当地野生食用植物资源的可持续利用提出了一些建议.