Affinities of the Swartkrans early Homo mandibles

The southern African early Homo assemblage continues to make important contributions to understanding the systematics, adaptations and evolutionary history of the human genus. However, the taxonomy of this sample is in a state of flux. This study examines the size and shape of the mandibular bodies of Swartkrans SK 15 and SK 45 comparing them with variation in two early Homo taxa (H. habilis sensu lato and H. sapiens erectus). The research aims to clarify their phenetic affinities and systematics through univariate statistics, inferential testing and multivariate analysis employing size (Log-transformed) and shape (Mosimann variables). Neither of them strongly resembles H. habilis sensu lato or H. sapiens erectus, rather, they probably sample a novel species of Homo not seen in East Africa. Moreover, there is considerable morphological variability within the Swartkrans sample and the possibility of more than one novel species being sampled at this site cannot be excluded.     

中国古人类颅容量的推算方法比较

古人类的体质特征和现代人不同,依据现代人头骨测量数据计算出来的公式往往不适于古人类颅容量的推算。获取古人类颅容量最准确的方法是复原出其内部的颅内模;然而,由于颅内模的复原工艺复杂,加上古人类头骨化石数量稀少且多数残破,如何准确地推算其颅容量,成为古人学者研究的难点问题之一。本文通过对中国境内发现的不同演化阶段的古人类颅容量推算方法的对比和验证,试图找出推算古人类颅容量的最适合的公式法。研究结果显示：1）早期现代人解剖特征同现代人基本接近,依据现代人头骨推算出来的回归方程可以用来推算其颅容量;2）直立人头骨厚重、脑颅低矮,体质特征不同于现代人,其颅容量的推算不能使用现代人公式法。依据本文中国直立人头骨测量数据推导出来的回程方程（C=-1301.944+60606L+0.718b+9.936h）适合其颅容量的推算。采用此直立人公式法,推算出蓝田直立人的颅容量为918 mL;3）古老型智人的体质特征位于直立人和现代人之间,对其颅容量的推算不能一概而论：体质特征接近直立人的,如大荔人、华龙洞6号,可采用直立人公式法;体质特征接近早期现代人的,如许昌1号,可采用现代人公式法;体质特征位于直立人和早期现代人中间位置的,如马坝人、金牛山人,其颅容量约等于采用现代人公式法和采用直立人公式法获得的颅容量的平均值。     

周口店直立人头骨创伤与人工切割痕迹辨析

自20世纪40年代魏敦瑞提出北京猿人（周口店直立人）可能存在“暴力争斗”和“同类残食”的观点之后,引发了一些学者和科普大众对北京猿人是否为“食人族”的争论。由于原始化石标本在第二次世界大战期间丢失,本文以保存下来的周口店（ZKD）直立人头骨原始模型和素描图为研究材料,对魏敦瑞提出的具有创伤和人工切割痕迹的5件标本（ZKD II、ZKD VI、ZKD X、ZKD XI和ZKD XII）进行辨析。结果显示：1）ZKD X、ZKD XI、ZKD XII这3件标本的头盖部,有7处可以确定为生前遭受非致死性撞击导致的局部创伤;2）ZKD VI头盖骨残片周边的及中央区域的断痕,为个体生前遭受致死性的暴力打击导致;3）ZKD II和ZKD VI顶骨位置疑似人工切割痕迹的沟槽实际上是动物啃咬或自然因素导致的,北京猿人“同类残食”的观点在本文研究中没有得到证实。北京猿人头骨的创伤痕迹都位于头盖部,以顶骨居多,其次为额骨,符合人群之间暴力冲突产生创伤的位置。     

犬齿窝与人类中面部骨骼的演化

犬齿窝是包括现代人类在内的许多人族成员面部骨骼的重要性状,但在分类学上的意义仍存在争议。有学者认为该性状是一个发生于基础面形的近祖性状,除了一些例外,在灭绝和现生的大猿及人属中都存在。另有学者认为,犬齿窝是仅存在于智人及其直系祖先的衍生性状,在发育上与颧齿槽突嵴有关。这种关系并非总是成立,在智人中存在着明显的差异：弧型颧齿槽突嵴和直斜型颧齿槽突嵴与犬齿窝有时共存,有时不共存。我们由此推测,犬齿窝的发生和形态与上颌窦的前部发育有关,颧齿槽突嵴的形态与鼻窦的侧面发育有关。在人类演化的过程中,犬齿窝经历了不同的变形,比如上颌沟(如南方古猿非洲种、傍人粗壮种)、上颌小窝(如傍人粗壮种)、上颌沟(如匠人)或犬齿窝缺如(如傍人埃塞俄比亚种、傍人鲍氏种、肯尼亚扁脸人、人属鲁道夫种)。犬齿窝消失的原因各类群并不相同,如中新世和早更新世人属以及中更新世人属(如人属海德堡种/人属罗得西亚种、人属尼安德特种)。人属罗得西亚种具有弱化的犬齿窝,不具备演化为智人的可能,因此被排除在智人的演化支之外。     

中更新世晚期中国古人类化石的形态多样性及其演化意义

近年对许家窑、许昌、华龙洞、澎湖、夏河、哈尔滨等人类化石开展的系统研究,引发了学界对中更新世晚期人类演化及分类的不同认识。基于对相关中国人类化石形态特征的分析,作者提出这一时期中国人类化石形态特征表现为四种类型：1）以中更新世晚期人类共有特征为主;2）以原始特征为主;3）以现代特征为主;4）独特形态组合。多数化石形态特征表现为前三种类型,而许昌和许家窑这种以硕大的头骨和巨大颅容量构成的独特形态组合在其他同时期化石还没有发现。化石形态的多样性提示,不同类型的中更新世晚期中国古人类对现代人的形成贡献不同。作者认为在该时期的人类化石形态多样性规律还未阐明的情况下,将具有混合或镶嵌特征的相关人类化石归入分类地位不确定的人群较为合适。     

Hemiasterid echinoids (Echinodermata: Spatangoida) from the Cretaceous Tethys to the present-day Mediterranean

Hemiasterid echinoids form one of the oldest and most varied spatangoid groups. Current data on stratigraphical and geographical distribution pattern show that their biogeographical history is closely related to Mediterranean-Tethyan structural and climatic changes. The group first appeared in the Aptian in the central Tethys (southwestern Europe) and developed and diversified remarkably in the Late Cretaceous through the subgenera Hemiaster (Hemiaster), H. (Bolbaster) and H. (Leymeriaster). Marked morphological changes arose in the early Paleogene when new Tertiary forms H. (Trachyaster), Opissaster and Ditremaster, originating in the Caribbean and Madagascan regions, respectively, replaced H. (Bolbaster) which partly survived and H. (Hemiaster) and H. (Leymeriaster) which disappeared entirely. These new forms achieved their greatest diversity during the Eocenee and thrived in the Mediterranean basin until it was sealed off from the Indo-Pacific in the Middle Miocene. Then Late Neogene climatic and structural events reduced hemiasterids to only a few Mediterranean species. The survivors of modern groups persisted in refuge areas of the western Mediterranean until middle Messinian times before being reduced to only one species, the last fossil one, during the Pliocene. Then, the Cenozoic groups H. (Trachyaster) and Opissaster definitively disappeared. Outside the Mediterranean basin primitive H. (Bolbaster) and modern Ditremaster, which colonized deep-water Atlantic environments from the Late Cretaceous and Middle Miocene respectively, survived the Messinian and Plio-Pleistocene climatic crises. They flourished in the northern Atlantic where their present-day descendants Ditremaster (Sarsiaster) griegii and H. (Bolbaster) expergitus still survive. H. (Bolbaster) expergitus spread worldwide and colonized the western Mediterranean in the Plio-Pleistocene via the Straits of Gibraltar.     

资阳人头骨化石的内部解剖结构

资阳人头骨化石,是新中国成立后首次发现的保存较为完整的人类化石,曾经引起学术界的广泛关注。由于其出土的具体位点和层位不是很清楚,对其年代目前还存有争议。长期以来,对资阳人的研究局限于传统的头骨外部形态的描述和测量。本文利用高分辨率工业CT(Computed tomography)扫描资阳人头骨,并对其内部解剖结构 (包括骨壁结构、额窦、骨内耳迷路、颞骨乳突小房、颅内模) 进行3D虚拟复原和研究,以期获得更多的形态信息。CT断层图显示资阳人头骨的骨壁板障层较厚,远大于外板层和内板层,支持以往研究认为的该头骨属于50岁以上个体的鉴定结果。额窦呈叶形,局限于两侧眼眶的内上方;左、右侧额窦的表面积分别为1780mm²和2910mm²。骨性内耳迷路半规管的大小及其比例,与尼安德特人不同,而位于晚更新世和全新世现代人变异范围之间。颞骨乳突小房为气化型,几乎占据了整个乳突部。根据复原的颅内模,资阳人的颅容量约为1250mL。颅内模的各项测量数值虽然都偏小,但脑的绝大多数形态特征、宽-高指数、顶叶-脑长指数都位于现代人的变异范围之内,而与直立人和更新世古老型...     

门齿孔位置在中国古人类化石与现代人群的表现及其演化意义

魏敦瑞在研究周口店北京直立人化石时发现,位于上颌骨硬腭表面的门齿孔位置在周口店标本靠后,而在现代人靠近齿槽。此后,门齿孔位置作为具有演化意义的形态特征被用于古人类学研究。迄今,对门齿孔位置在中国古人类化石表现的专门研究仅有周口店一件标本,而在现代中国人的数据尚属空白。鉴于此,本文对门齿孔位置在中国古人类化石以及现代中国人标本进行了观察、测量和数据统计。在此基础上,结合世界其他地区古人类数据资料,本文对门齿孔位置在中国古人类化石的表现特点及其演化意义进行了探讨。本研究发现,从更新世早期到更新世晚期,门齿孔位置在中国古人类呈现由后向前的总体变化趋势。更新世早期和中期直立人(郧县曲远河口、周口店)的门齿孔位置都比较靠后;中更新世晚期的部分中国古人类(大荔、长阳、华龙洞)的门齿孔位置前移,并与现代人接近,而金牛山和巢县门齿孔位置比较靠后,位于直立人范围;在更新世晚期,所有中国古人类都比较靠前,位于现代人变异范围。本文对现代人标本的观测显示,门齿孔位置在现代中国人比较靠前。现代人门齿孔大小及形态存在较大变异,这种表现特点在一定程度上影响对门齿孔位置及演化意义的判定。几乎全部现代人标本门齿孔前缘呈...     

Number of ancestral human species: a molecular perspective

Despite the remarkable developments in molecular biology over the past three decades, anthropological genetics has had only limited impact on systematics in human evolution. Genetics offers the opportunity to objectively test taxonomies based on morphology and may be used to supplement conventional approaches to hominid systematics. Our analyses, examining chromosomes and 46 estimates of genetic distance, indicate there may have been only around 4 species on the direct line to modern humans and 5 species in total. This contrasts with current taxonomies recognising up to 23 species.

The genetic proximity of humans and chimpanzees has been used to suggest these species are congeneric. Our analysis of genetic distances between them is consistent with this proposal. It is time that chimpanzees, living humans and all fossil humans be classified in Homo. The creation of new genera can no longer be a solution to the complexities of fossil morphologies. Published genetic distances between common chimpanzees and bonobos, along with evidence for interbreeding, suggest they should be assigned to a single species.

The short distance between humans and chimpanzees also places a strict limit on the number of possible evolutionary side branches that might be recognised on the human lineage. All fossil taxa were genetically very close to each other and likely to have been below congeneric genetic distances seen for many mammals.

Our estimates of genetic divergence suggest that periods of around 2 million years are required to produce sufficient genetic distance to represent speciation. Therefore, Neanderthals and so-called H. erectus were genetically so close to contemporary H. sapiens they were unlikely to have been separate species. Thus, it is likely there was only one species of human (H. sapiens) for most of the last 2 million years. We estimate the divergence time of H. sapiensfrom 16 genetic distances to be around 1.7 Ma which is consistent with evidence for the earliest migration out of Africa. These findings call into question the mitochondrial «African Eve» hypothesis based on a far more recent origin for H. sapiens and show that humans did not go through a bottleneck in their recent evolutionary history.

Given the large offset in evolutionary rates of molecules and morphology seen in human evolution, Homo species are likely to be characterised by high levels of morphological variation and low levels of genetic variability. Thus, molecular data suggest the limits for intraspecific morphological variation used by many palaeoanthropologists have been set too low. The role of phenotypic plasticity has been greatly underestimated in human evolution.

We call into question the use of mtDNA for studies of human evolution. This DNA is under strong selection, which violates the assumption of selective neutrality. This issue should be addressed by geneticists, including a reassessment of its use for molecular clocks. There is a need for greater cooperation between palaeoanthropologists and anthropological geneticists to better understand human evolution and to bring palaeoanthropology into the mainstream of evolutionary biology.     

Comparative context of Plio-Pleistocene hominin brain evolution.

One of the distinguishing features of Homo sapiens is its absolutely and relatively large brain. This feature is also seen in less extreme form in some fossil Homo species. However, are increases in brain size during the Plio-Pleistocene only seen in Homo, and is brain enlargement among Plio-Pleistocene primates confined to hominins? This study examines evidence for changes in brain size for species and lineage samples of three synchronic East African fossil primate groups, the two hominin genera Homo and Paranthropus, and the cercopithecoid genus Theropithecus. Hominin endocranial capacity data were taken from the literature, but it was necessary to develop an indirect method for estimating the endocranial volume of Theropithecus. Bivariate and multivariate regression equations relating measured endocranial volume to three external cranial dimensions were developed from a large (ca. 340) sample of modern African cercopithecoids. These equations were used to estimate the endocranial volumes of 20 Theropithecus specimens from the African Plio-Pleistocene. Spearman's rho and the Hubert nonparametric test were used to search for evidence of temporal trends in both the hominin and Theropithecus data. Endocranial volume apparently increased over time in both Homo and Paranthropus boisei, but there was no evidence for temporal trends in the endocranial volume of Theropithecus. Thus, hypotheses which suggest a mix of environmental, social, dietary, or other factors as catalysts for increasing brain in Plio-Pleistocene primates must accommodate evidence of brain enlargement in both Homo and Paranthropus, and explain why this phenomenon appears to be restricted to hominins.     

新证据下的现代人起源模型

解剖结构上的现代人是指具有近圆球形头骨、短而平的面颅、纤细的骨骼等特征的区别于其他古老人类的化石和现今的人群。支持多地区演化模型和支持近期非洲起源模型的学者,在“解剖结构上的现代人”的应用范围方面是不同的,前者以连续演化为基本思想,认为这一名词只包括智人中较进步的类群;而后者以分支系统学思想为基础,认为包括所有智人。分子古生物学研究显示,尼人、丹人和智人在遗传学水平上属于不同的人种。新近的以标本-种群为单元的系统分析,因为不是以属、种等分类学阶元进行的,因此与分类学的阶元划分无关。该系统分析的结果显示智人属于单系类群,哈尔滨人、大荔人等组成其姊妹群。尼人与智人的分异早于1百万年,与基因组水平的谱系分析相符合。多次多向的穿梭扩散是统计学上符合系统关系的模型。     

Ultrastructural studies on experimental primary amoebic meningo-encephalitis (PAME) of mouse due to Naegler1a aerobia and Hartmannella culbertsoni

Primary amoebic meningo-encephalitis (PAME) in mouse can be easily produced by intranasal inoculation of Naegleria aerobia Singh & Das, 1970 and Hartmannella culbertsoni Singh & Das, 1970. The ultrastructural characteristics of N. aerobia and H. culbertsoni from infected mouse brain tissues showed many similar characteristics. The distinctive features between the two were the retention of phagocytic activity by N. aerobia as well as pinocytic activity in the ingestion of food as compared to H. culbertsoni where only pinocytic activity was observed. Staining characteristics of mitochondria suggested that N. aerobia was more active in the brain tissues than H. culbertsoni. Membrane-bound darkly stained bodies of unknown function were found in the brains infected with both N. aerobia and H. culbertsoni. They may have some bearing on the pathogenicity of these amoebae. Human cases of PAME so far reported are mostly due to N. aerobia and rarely with H. culbertsoni. This may be due to certain inherent characteristics present in N. aerobia which help them to survive on human brain tissue. On the other hand, the same may be lacking in H. culbertsoni. These ultrastructural differences in both N. aerobia and H. culbertsoni, as revealed by electron microscope studies of the infected brain tissues of mice, are presented in this paper.     

东亚中更新世古人类下颔第二臼齿釉质-齿质连接面三维形状和釉质厚度分布

东亚中更新世古人类在头骨、下颌骨、牙齿等解剖部位表现出不同程度的形态多样性,中期成员代表为直立人,而晚期成员的演化地位具有较大争议。为进一步了解东亚中更新世古人类内部的形态变异特点和为东亚中更新世晚期古人类分类提供依据,本文使用微分同胚的表面匹配（Diffeomorphic Surface Matching, DSM）和形态测量图（Morphometric map）对下颌第二臼齿（M₂）釉质-齿质连接面的形状和齿冠侧面釉质厚度分布模式进行了量化分析。结果显示：1）东亚中更新世古人类与晚期人属成员（尼安德特人和现代人）存在较明显的形态差别;2）该时段晚期的东亚古人类相对中期直立人在侧面釉质厚度分布规律上具有独特性,并在釉质-齿质连接面的三维形状上与晚期人属成员更加接近。本文在以往对东亚中更新世古人类牙齿内外结构单个性状研究的基础上,使用三维形态测量方法进一步量化了M₂釉质-齿质连接面三维形状和侧面釉质厚度分布模式两项重要特征的变异特点,这对未来该时段同类型牙齿的形态鉴定以及解决东亚中更新世晚期古人类的分类地位具有一定意义。     

美国白蛾丝氨酸蛋白酶基因HcSP1的克隆、时空表达及对取食不同寄主植物的表达响应

【目的】为探究美国白蛾Hyphantria cunea在寄主转换过程中的消化生理机制奠定基础。【方法】通过筛选美国白蛾cDNA文库,克隆美国白蛾丝氨酸蛋白酶基因。荧光定量PCR检测该基因在美国白蛾不同发育阶段的表达特性;半定量RT-PCR和荧光定量PCR分别检测该基因在美国白蛾5龄幼虫体内不同组织中的分布及表达特性;荧光定量PCR检测取食不同寄主植物(美洲黑杨Populus deltoides,日本晚樱Cerasus serrulata var.lannesiana,山樱花Cerasus serrulata,喜树Camptotheca acuminata和法国梧桐Platanus orientalis)叶片后美国白蛾4龄幼虫中该基因的表达量。【结果】克隆获得美国白蛾丝氨酸蛋白酶基因HcSP1(GenBank登录号:MH663425),开放阅读框长882 bp,编码293个氨基酸,预测分子量为30.5 kD,理论等电点预测为9.86。编码蛋白N末端疏水区包含15个氨基酸组成的信号肽;具有丝氨酸蛋白酶的典型特征,即氨基酸序列中具有组氨酸(His)、天门冬氨酸(Asp)以及丝氨酸(Ser)残基组成的酶活性催化中心三元件;具有明显的胰蛋白酶前体的特征,即具有信号肽、激活肽以及胰蛋白酶N末端保守的起始氨基酸序列(IVGG)。NCBI BLAST比对结果表明美国白蛾HcSP1与其他鳞翅目昆虫丝氨酸蛋白酶的氨基酸序列一致性在50%～70%之间。荧光定量PCR结果显示,HcSP1在美国白蛾幼虫不同发育阶段的相对表达量呈现动态的变化,并随着幼虫虫龄的增长呈现上升趋势。半定量RT-PCR及荧光定量PCR结果显示,HcSP1在美国白蛾5龄幼虫头部、唾液腺、中肠、脂肪体、表皮、马氏管和血淋巴等组织中均有表达且在幼虫中肠中表达量极高。与取食其他寄主植物叶片相比,美国白蛾取食喜树叶片后HcSP1的相对表达量明显升高,并显著高于取食其他寄主植物。【结论】本研究克隆获得美国白蛾丝氨酸蛋白酶基因HcSP1,检测了其在美国白蛾不同发育阶段、不同组织以及取食不同寄主植物叶片后的表达量,为探究美国白蛾在寄主转换过程中消化生理的机制奠定基础,也为美国白蛾的防治提供新的思路。     

The role of neutrophils and inflammation in gastric mucosal injury

Gastric inflammation is a highly complex biochemical protective response to cellular/tissue injury. When this process occurs in an uncontrolled manner, the result is excessive cellular/tissue damage that results chronic inflammation and destruction of normal tissue. Current evidence suggests that Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ingestion are major causative factors in the pathogenesis of gastric mucosal injury in humans. In response to H. pylori infection or NSAID, neutrophils are recruited to the site of inflammation and generate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and proteases. However, neutrophils are not able to kill the bacteria that live in the gastric mucus, and compounds produced by activated neutrophils themselves may be potentially harmful for normal tissue. It has been shown that leukocyte-vascular endothelial cell interaction is regulated by various cell adhesion molecules, and that this interaction is directly or indirectly modified by many factors, the origin of which is H. pylori and NSAIDs. This review describes the potential role of neutrophils and neutrophil-associated inflammation for gastric oxidative stress and injury induced by H. pylori and/or NSAID.     

The effect of exogenous factors on morphology and asexual reproduction in laboratory cultures of the intertidal sea anemone, Haliplanella luciae (Verrill) (Anthozoa: Actiniaria) from Delaware

Temperature in combination with different feeding frequencies caused rapid changes in the morphology of experimental culture populations of Haliplanella luciae (Verrill) due to exogenous effects on fission rate (k). A temperature of 15°C permitted few fissions, and only when the anemones were fed at frequent intervals. Conditions which maximized k caused significant decreases in diameter, numbers of septa, and numbers of tentacles after only 26 days in culture. Anemones fed every two days at 15°C showed the least morphological change over the culture period, remaining morphologically similar to field specimens. Asexual reproduction in H. luciae is not as well integrated with organismal growth as in hydroids. The importance of k and environmental regulators of k in determining both morphological structure and population size of H. luciae is discussed. In this study H. luciae were of a previously undescribed color variant, with light longitudinal bands.     

Correlation of self- and interspecific incompatibility among sympatric Hedyotis species (Rubiaceae) and consequences for hybridization

Breakdown of self-incompatibility increases opportunities for both self-fertilization and interspecific hybridization, although the latter is dependent on the extent of competition between heterospecific and conspecific pollen. We investigate the mating system and pollination biology of five phylogenetically closely related species within a distylous species complex in Hedyotis L. (Rubiaceae) in southern China. The complex comprises Hedyotis acutangula Champ. ex Benth., Hedyotis shiuyingiae T.Chen, Hedyotis vachellii (Hook. & Arn.) Kuntze, and two putative hybrid species, Hedyotis bodinieri (H.Lév.) Chun and Hedyotis loganioides Benth., hypothesized to result from interbreeding between these species. We test the hypothesis that the breakdown of self- and interspecific incompatibilities in sympatric Hedyotis species might allow interspecific hybridization in natural populations. We assessed the extent of self- and interspecific incompatibility in sympatric populations, including investigations of spontaneous and artificial self-pollination, geitonogamy, inter- and intramorph xenogamy. Artificial interspecific crosses were undertaken between H. acutangula, H. shiuyingiae, and H. bodinieri, between H. acutangula and H. vachellii, and between H. acutangula and H. loganioides. Hedyotis acutangula is demonstrated to be self- and interspecific compatible, whereas H. vachellii, H. bodinieri, and H. loganioides are self-compatible and interspecific incompatible; H. shiuyingiae, in contrast, is strictly self- and interspecific incompatible. Comparisons of pollen tube growth rates in hybridizing species-pairs revealed that heterospecific pollen of H. shiuyingiae, H. vachellii, and H. bodinieri can compete with conspecific self-pollen of H. acutangula. Our study therefore indicates that the breakdown of self-incompatibility directly and indirectly facilitates interspecific hybridization and provides a platform for better understanding evolutionary directionality in Hedyotis.     

中国西北地区萱草属花粉形态研究

本文借助光学显微镜和扫描电镜,对我国西北地区萱草属6种1变种的花粉形态进行了比较研究,不同的种类,其花粉形态或多或少有所不同,说明花粉形态在种间具有分类意义,而且6种、1变种可自然地分为两大类群,第一类群包括小黄花菜、北萱草、黄花菜,第二类群包括北黄花菜、折叶萱草、萱草、重瓣萱草。#br#北黄花菜、小黄花菜的花粉形态差别较大,证明把小黄花菜做为北黄花菜的变种是不妥当的。