人工埋藏植物种子对鼠类采食下辽东栎坚果存活及萌发率的影响

辽东栎林（Q. liaotungensis)是北京东灵山地区典型地带植被。过去研究表明,鼠类对辽东栎更新有很大影响。本研究主要调查3个问题：（1）采食辽东栎坚果的鼠类种类;（2）将坚果埋藏于土中能否减少鼠类对坚果的采食,并提高出苗率？（3）地表植被是否影响辽东栎的出苗率？1996年9月在北京东灵山地区山地选取5个类型的样地37块,每样地在地表放置10粒坚果,检查地表种子消失率。使用木板夹来调查采食坚果的鼠类种类,诱饵分别为坚果和花生米。于1997年10月,选取5块样地,间隔25 m,每样地在1m²范围内埋50粒坚果,深度5 cm,次年5月调查出苗情况。研究结果表明,大林姬鼠、社鼠和黑线姬鼠为取食坚果的主要种类,取食比例与其丰富度有关。370粒坚果放在地表后,1d、10d、20d的消失率分别达15.1%、78.1%、和 100%。250粒坚果埋入土层后,出苗率达11.2%,苗平均高度为7.8cm,出苗率与地表植被盖度有一定负相关。本研究认为,人工埋藏植物种子可以减少鼠类捕食坚果,并能增加其出苗率。     

埋藏和环境因子对辽东栎(Quercus liaotun-gensis Koidz)种子更新的影响

辽东栎萌生丛零散地分布在北京山区,虽然其种子量很大,但自然状况下的实生苗非常稀少。鼠类搬运并吃掉大量散落在地表的辽东栎种子,但鼠类是否影响辽东栎的自然更新尚不清楚。本研究主要在于了解：（1）将种子埋入土层内后对辽东栎种子出苗率的影响;（2）环境因子（如坡向、地表植被等）对辽东栎种子出苗率的影响。1996年9月24日,选取5块样地（Site）,在每块样地各设置1条样线（Transect),每条样线上设置若干样点（Plot）,样点间隔10m,用于种子埋藏实验,在每个样点设置6条平行线（Parallel transect),间隔10cm,各埋入10粒种子,种子间隔2cm;第1、2、3、4、5、6条线的埋藏深度分别为0、2、4、6、8、10cm。分别于1997年6月15日和10月4日调查出苗情况。研究结果表明,和秋季辽东栎种子出苗率均与埋藏深度呈正相关,埋藏通过改善湿度和减少鼠类等动物的取食而增加了出苗率,其贡献分别占18％和12％。但鼠类对埋入土层内种子的取食率依然很高（87％）。辽东栎种子在阴坡和阳坡的最终出苗率都很高,但阳坡地要早于阴坡。夏季辽乐栎种子出苗率均与地表植被覆盖度负相关,地表植被可能是通过与辽东栎种子竞争水分和养分而降低辽东栎种子出苗要早于阴坡。夏季辽东栎种子出苗率均与地表植被覆盖度和高度相关不显著,从夏季到秋季,从东栎种子出苗率有所增加,主要是由于埋藏在深处或阴坡处的种子出苗较晚的缘故。     

刺五加繁殖试验

对刺五加（Ａｃａｎｔｈｏｐａｎａｘｓｅｎｔｉｃｏｓｕｓ）繁殖的２个重要器官（根茎和种子）进行了调查与试验。通过对根茎的埋土与扦插试验表明,横埋于土壤中的根茎切段的出苗率高于扦插的根茎切段;用生根粉（ＡＢＴ）处理过的根茎切段的出苗率高于未经ＡＢＴ处理的。种子千粒重与大小的调查表明,比较稳定的硬阔叶林与蒙古栎林中刺五加种群产生的种子粒大质优,但数量较少,而较不稳定的山杨林中刺五加种群产生的种子粒小质差,但数量较多。对种子的不同处理方法表明,层积处理的种子出苗率最高,出苗时间也短,种子直播和果实直播的出苗率则明显低于前者,而且出苗时间也长。种子直播的出苗率又高于果实直播     

种子产量对鼠类扩散栓皮栎坚果的影响

为了解林木种子产量对鼠类种子扩散行为的影响,于2008 年和2009 年,在国有济源市愚公林场调查了栓皮栎的种子雨;在每年的种子雨结束后,选择次生林生境,研究了鼠类对人工释放栓皮栎坚果的扩散,旨在探讨种子产量与种子扩散间的关系。结果表明:1)取食栓皮栎坚果的鼠类主要有大林姬鼠、社鼠和岩松鼠,2008 年的鼠类捕获率(2% )低于2009 年(10%),其差异并未达到显著性水平;2)栓皮栎的种子雨构成和产量存在年际差异,2008 年以完好种子为主且产量高于2009 年,而2009 年以败育种子为主;3)2008 年人工释放栓皮栎坚果的中位存留时间显著高于2009 年;4)2008 年鼠类对栓皮栎坚果的平均扩散距离显著低于2009 年,且两年的搬运距离几乎都集中在9 m 以内;5)2008 年鼠类对栓皮栎坚果的埋藏比例显著高于2009 年。结果提示,在种子高产年份,可能有较多的种子逃脱动物的取食,从而增加种子萌发和幼苗建成的机会,最终促进植物的更新。     

岷江干旱河谷5种乡土植物的出苗、存活和生长

为了阐明干旱河谷自然条件下乡土植物种子出苗与幼苗定居能力的空间差异性,选择环境适应能力较强的植被恢复物种,试验选择岷江上游干旱河谷水热条件具有明显差异的两个试验地点:四川省茂县撮箕山(南坡)和两河口(北坡),采用4因素随机区组设计,开展大量的野外播种对比试验,研究了微生境类型改变及不同播种处理方式对白刺花(Sophora davidi (Franch.) Skeels.)、小马鞍羊蹄甲(Bauhinia faberi var. microphylla)、岷谷木蓝(Indigofera lenticallata Craib)、落芒草(Oryzopsis munroi Stapf)和川芒(Miscamthus szechuanesis Keng)5种干旱河谷乡土植物种子出苗、幼苗存活及生长的影响.发现:(1)在干旱河谷自然气候条件下,播种后1个月是所有受试植物出苗的高峰期,但是种子出苗率都很低,达不到30%;幼苗存活能力也极低,在播种1个月后所有幼苗死亡数量增加而保存数明显下降;在播种2个后幼苗存活数均为0.相同条件下小马鞍羊蹄甲、岷谷木蓝与落芒草的出苗数量明显高于白刺花和川芒.这说明干旱河谷地区种子出苗与幼苗存活的限制是自然植被更新能力弱,并且恢复困难的主要原因.(2)种子出苗及幼苗存活能力在不同区域之间具有明显的差异,湿润地段种子出苗数量与幼苗保存数量都较大.但是,种子出苗及幼苗存活能力在同一地段灌丛、半灌丛与裸地等不同类型的微生境之间无明显变化.(3)小容器播种能够有效地增加种子出苗率与短期幼苗存活,但是未能提高幼苗最终的存活能力及生长速率;采用保水剂与腐殖质土壤改良措施对种子出苗数与幼苗保存数没有明显影响,因而这些措施不能解除干旱河谷地区极端环境胁迫对幼苗定居的阻碍.     

季节变化对锐齿栎种子扩散的影响

季节变化是影响鼠类扩散植物种子的一个主要环境因素.2008年9-11月(秋季)和2009年3-4月(春季)分别在秦岭南坡的佛坪国家级自然保护区内调查了森林鼠类对锐齿栎种子的扩散,并与种子大小年假说的预测进行了比较分析.结果表明:春季锐齿栎种子的扩散速度比秋季快,平均扩散距离(取食距离和贮藏距离)也比秋季远,该结果与种子...     

鼠类对山杏种子存活和萌发的影响

山杏（Prunus armeniaca)是广布于北京山区阳坡的矮林或灌丛,易生存在土壤贫脊、干旱、或严重退化的山坡、裸地,对于保护生态环境,减少水土流失及促进山区经济发展均具有重要作用。有关鼠类在山杏更新中作用的研究较少,本研究主要是确定影响山杏更新的鼠类种类、鼠类对山杏种子的取食压力、人工埋藏种子及植被因素对种子存活和萌发的影响。于1997年10月3－4日,采用夹捕法同时调查取食花生和山杏种子的鼠类种类及种群密度。于1997年9月24－25日,通过在地表放置山桔种子,调查在鼠类取食下,地表种子消失的速度。于1997年10月20日,作种子埋藏实验,调查种子存活及萌发情况。于1997年10月26日,进行扣网实验,研究网内、外山杏种子存活及萌发情况。结果表明：大林姬鼠（Apodemus speciosus)、社鼠（Rattus confucianus),黑线姬鼠（Apodemus agrarius)为取食山杏种子的主要鼠种种类;与取食花生相比,社鼠更偏爱山杏种子,大林姬鼠对山杏种子喜食性略低,黑线姬鼠对二者喜食程度相近;山杏种子放置地表后1、10、20、30d的消失率分别为13.06%,64.46%,90.70%,96.69%;扣网实验说明,山杏在地表的萌发率极低,生长也慢;而埋入土层内可明显提高萌发率和生长率（若除去鼠类的取食,萌发率还要高）;人工埋藏实验表明,将山杏种子埋入土层5cm后,能够有效地减少鼠类对种子的取食;通过分析山杏种子萌发与植被的关系,发现山杏易在开阔、阳光充分的草丛中存活和生长,而不易在阴闭的灌丛下存活和生长。     

食物丰富度对鼠类鉴别和扩散虫蛀短柄枹栎种子的影响

时空因素和种子特征对森林鼠类扩散植物种子有着非常重要的影响。为了解食物丰富度对鼠类鉴别和扩散虫蛀种子的影响,于2012年春季(4—5月,食物匮乏季节)和2012年秋季(9—11月,食物丰盛季节),采用塑料片标记法,在秦岭南坡的佛坪国家级自然保护区内调查了森林鼠类对完好的和虫蛀的短柄枹栎Quercus glandulifera种子的扩散差异。结果显示:1)森林鼠类可以较为准确地区分完好种子和虫蛀种子。完好种子的扩散速度较快,而虫蛀种子在原地的存留时间相对较长。2)食物丰富度会对鼠类鉴别和扩散虫蛀种子产生一定的影响,但是这种影响并不显著,鼠类在春、秋季均倾向于优先取食或贮藏完好种子。3)完好种子在秋季被鼠类贮藏的比例(20%)显著高于春季(12.5%),说明种子在食物丰盛季节能够获得更大的利益。     

昆虫蛀蚀对鼠类介导下的锐齿槲栎种子扩散的影响

森林鼠类的种子贮藏行为对植物的扩散和自然更新有着非常重要的影响。然而,鼠类是否具有鉴别虫蛀种子的能力还存在一定的争议。此外,鼠类的鉴别能力是否受到食物丰富度变化的影响也未见相关报道。采用标签标记法,2011年秋季(9—11月,食物丰富季节)和2012年春季(4—6月,食物匮乏季节)分别在秦岭南坡的佛坪国家级自然保护区内,调查了森林鼠类对完好和虫蛀锐齿槲栎(Quercus aliena)种子的选择差异。结果显示:1)在秋季,尽管2种类型种子的存留动态没有显著差异,但是在后期虫蛀种子的存留时间相对更长;而在春季2种类型种子的存留动态则极为显著,几乎所有的完好种子(99%)在释放后的第3天就被鼠类全部扩散,虫蛀种子的存留时间则相对较长。2)在秋季,鼠类更喜好扩散后取食完好种子;而在春季,鼠类则喜好在原地取食绝大部分的种子,并且优先取食完好种子。3)在秋季,鼠类贮藏了更多的完好种子;而在春季,尽管完好种子在释放后第1天便达到贮藏高峰,然而由于后期的大量被捕食,2种类型种子在贮藏动态上没有显示出显著差异。研究结果表明秦岭地区森林鼠类可以准确区分完好与虫蛀种子,但是食物丰富度会影响鼠类对种子的选择策略。在食物丰富的秋季,鼠类更多地选择贮藏完好种子;而在食物相对匮乏的春季,鼠类更倾向于同时取食2种类型种子。森林鼠类通过对2种类型种子的鉴别和选择,影响不同种子的命运,从而可能对种子的扩散和自然更新产生重要影响。     

小泡巨鼠和社鼠对珍稀濒危植物红豆树种子的捕食和扩散作用

红豆树(Ormosia hosiei)为我国特有的国家Ⅱ级保护珍稀濒危植物,有关动物对种子的捕食和扩散作用是否影响其种群更新目前尚无研究.2009年秋季,我们在四川省都江堰地区利用大型实验围栏研究了小泡巨鼠(Leopoldamys edwardsi)和社鼠(Niviventor confuciamus)对红豆树种子的捕食和贮藏格局,以便了解鼠类在红豆树种子扩散中的潜在作用.结果表明小泡巨鼠和社鼠均取食红豆树种子,但二者贮藏种子的方式不同:社鼠主要集中贮藏种子,对红豆树种子的扩散作用不大,而小泡巨鼠则主要分散贮藏种子,故对红豆树种子有一定的扩散作用.研究结果说明尽管鼠类可通过捕食而降低种子存活,但分散贮藏的鼠种能促进红豆树种子的扩散,从而有利于其种群维持.     

Establishment and reproduction of Aeschynomene virginica (L.) (Fabaceae) a rare,annual, wetland species in relation to vegetation removal and water level

Aeschynomene virginica is a rare annual plant found in freshwater tidal wetlands of the eastern United States. We hypothesized that standing vegetation and water inundation were two important environmental factors in its population dynamics. To test these hypotheses, we sowed seeds into plots with undisturbed vegetation or plots with all aboveground vegetation removed in 1998 and 1999. Presence/absence of seedlings was noted and seedling survival to reproduction, final size, and seed set were measured throughout both growing seasons. Seedling establishment from germination to the first true leaf stage increased with decreasing water depth. Vegetation removal plots had greater seedling establishment, higher seedling survival, and higher seed set per plant than non-removal plots. In a greenhouse study designed to test the effects of water level on seed germination and seedling establishment, no seedlings established in submerged soils, and seed germination and seedling establishment were lower in waterlogged soil than in wet soil. Physical stress associated with deeper water likely limits the distribution of A. virginica to higher elevations, where seeds that colonize patches with low vegetative cover are more likely to produce reproductive adults that produce more seeds relative to patches with established vegetation. A. virginica appears to be a fugitive species specializing on open habitat patches in tidal wetlands. This species may be dependent on disturbances for population establishment and maintenance.     

Demography of woody plants in relation to fire: Banksia ericifolia L.f. and Petrophile pulchella (Schrad) R.Br.

Plants of Banksia ericifolia and Petrophile pulchella are sensitive to fire. Changes in population size under different fire regimes were estimated, based on measurements of post-fire seedling emergence, seedling survival, survival and seed production in established plants of differing ages, survival of seeds held in serotinous cones and seed-release in the periods between fire. Seeds were first available at 5 years in P. pulchella and 6 years in B. ericifolia. Exact replacement would be possible when burnt at these ages, if seedling establishment were very high. Low establishment would delay replacement to 13 years of age in both species. Late summer/autumn fires of high intensity favour high establishment. Such fires at 8–10 year intervals would be tolerated without any sustained decline in numbers. Fires at 10–15 year intervals could occur regardless of season or intensity with little risk of a population decline. Large increases in numbers and density would follow fires spaced at 15–30 years. Enough seeds would be available for replacement up to about 50 years in both species. Viable seed-release in unburnt conditions was sufficient to compensate for deaths in stands over 20 years old, even with very low levels of establishment. Two variables accounted for the biggest changes in numbers and density between generations interspersed by fires; namely the age at which a stand is burned and the proportion of seeds which emerge as seedlings. A comparison with other similar species showed similarities in controls on emergence and establishment, lengths of primary juvenile periods and life spans.     

Effects of dung and seed size on secondary dispersal,seed predation,and seedling establishment of rain forest trees

Seeds dispersed by tropical, arboreal mammals are usually deposited singly and without dung or in clumps of fecal material. After dispersal through defecation by mammals, most seeds are secondarily dispersed by dung beetles or consumed by rodents. These post-dispersal, plant-animal interactions are likely to interact themselves, as seeds buried by dung beetles are less likely to be found by rodents than unburied seeds. In a series of three experiments with seeds of 15 species in central Amazonia (Brazil), we determined (1) how presence and amount of dung associated with seeds influences long-term seed fate and seedling establishment, (2) how deeply dung beetles bury seeds and how burial depth affects seedling establishment, and (3) how seed size affects the interaction between seeds, dung beetles, and rodents. Our overall goal was to understand how post-dispersal plant-animal interactions determine the link between primary seed dispersal and seedling establishment. On average, 43% of seeds surrounded by dung were buried by dung beetles, compared to 0% of seeds not surrounded by dung (n=2,156). Seeds in dung, however, tended to be more prone than bare seeds to predation by rodents. Of seeds in dung, probability of burial was negatively related to seed size and positively related to amount of dung. Burial of seeds decreased the probability of seed predation by rodents three-fold, and increased the probability of seedling establishment two-fold. Mean burial depth was 4 cm (0.5–20 cm) and was not related to seed size, contrary to previous studies. Probability of seedling establishment was negatively correlated with burial depth and not related to seed size at 5 or 10 cm depths. These results illustrate a complex web of interactions among dung beetles, rodents, and dispersed seeds. These interactions affect the probability of seedling establishment and are themselves strongly tied to how seeds are deposited by primary dispersers. More generally, our results emphasize the importance of looking beyond a single type of plant-animal interaction (e.g., seed dispersal or seed predation) to incorporate potential effects of interacting interactions.     

Seed germination and seedling emergence of three annuals growing on desert sand dunes in China

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Information on the initial growth characteristics of annuals found in Chinese deserts is very limited. The aim of this study was to investigate seed germination and interactive effects of irrigation and seed burial depth in sand on seedling emergence and seedling survival in three annuals (Agriophyllum squarrosum, Bassia dasyphylla and Aristida adscensionis) commonly growing on sand dunes in these regions. METHODS: Effects of temperature, light and polyethylene glycol-6000 on seed germination were examined by irrigating seeds sown on filter paper in Petri dishes. Seedling emergence was examined for seeds sown on the surface of, or at different depths (5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mm) in, sand-filled pots, which were irrigated under different regimes. For seeds buried at a depth of 50 mm, seed viability was examined after irrigation of the pots. KEY RESULTS: Seeds of three species germinated at most temperatures recorded between spring and autumn in their native habitats. No seed dormancy was found in any species. For all three species, seedling emergence was most favoured when seeds were buried at a depth of 10 mm. When seeds sown on the sand surface were irrigated, seed germination was considerably suppressed due to water deficiency, but many seeds remained viable. For A. squarrosum and B. dasyphylla, many seeds that were deeply buried and irrigated remained ungerminated but viable, while for A. adscensionis deeply buried seeds germinated, but the seedlings did not emerge due to unfavourable seedling growth in deep sand. CONCLUSIONS: Precipitation is the most crucial factor in determining the seasonal emergence of seedlings of the three tested species in the field. The vertical distribution of seeds in sand determines the proportion of seeds that germinate after precipitation and acts to maintain seed banks over multiple years.     

Rodent seed predation and seedling recruitment in mesic grassland

Seedling recruitment of two grasses (Arrhenatherum elatius and Festuca rubra) and two herbs (Centaurea nigra and Rumex acetosa) was measured in areas with and without rodents to which seeds of each species were sown at three seed densities (1000, 10,000 and 50,000 seeds m⁻²) in two seasons (spring and autumn 1995). Seed removal was measured for 10-day periods and the fate of seedlings was followed for 15 months after sowing. The proportion of seed removed ranged from 6 to 85% and increased with increasing seed density for each species. Rodents had no effect on seedling emergence or survival in the spring sowing. In the autumn sowing, rodents reduced seedling emergence of all four species sown at 1000 and 10,000 seeds m⁻² but had no impact at 50,000 seeds m⁻², presumably because of microsite limitation. We suggest the difference between spring and autumn arose because emergence was seed limited in autumn but microsite limited in spring; microsite availability was higher in autumn because a summer drought killed plants, reduced plant biomass and opened up the sward. Fifteen months after the autumn sowing, fewer A. elatius and C. nigra seedlings survived on plots exposed to rodents. This result reflected not only the reduced seedling emergence but also increased seedling mortality (seedling herbivory) in sites exposed to rodents. In contrast, F. rubra and R.acteosa showed density-dependent seedling survival which compensated for initial differences in seedling emergence, so that no effect of rodents remained after 15 months. The results suggest that rodent seed predation and seedling herbivory exert strong effects on seedling recruitment of A.elatius and C. nigra when recruitment conditions are favourable (conditions that lead to high microsite availability) and may contribute to both species being maintained at low densities in the grassland. The results also demonstrate that highly significant impacts of rodent seed predation at the seedling emergence stage can disappear by the time of plant maturation. Received: 2 March 1998 / Accepted: 28 September 1998     

Effects of burial and storage on germination and seed reserves of 18 tree species in a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico

The changes in germination and seed reserve composition that occur while seeds are stored in the laboratory or buried in the soil are important for understanding the potential and ecological longevity of seeds as well as seed-bank dynamics. Both germination and seed-bank dynamics depend on water availability. We studied 18 tree species, including those with permeable or impermeable seeds, from a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico. We measured seed germination in a growth chamber after (1) dispersal, (2) laboratory storage, (3) seed burial at two field sites and directly in the field, and (4) two rainy seasons. Lipids, nitrogen, and nonstructural carbohydrates were quantified after dispersal and after laboratory or field storage. Sixteen species were viable after three periods of laboratory storage (~3 years). Eleven species were viable after two burial periods in the field (~2 years). Nitrogen concentration decreased after storage and burial in 11 species. Species lipid concentration had a negative relationship with species water content at dispersal and after one burial period, whereas nonstructural carbohydrates showed the opposite trend. Potential and ecological longevities were similar in impermeable seeds. Most of the species studied can form persistent seed banks consisting mainly of species with impermeable seeds that can remain in the soil without degrading their viability. Germination in the field is staggered following natural precipitation pulses as a strategy to stagger seedling recruitment, which may insure against unfavorable conditions.     

Effects of Dispersal Pattern and Mammalian Herbivores on Seedling Recruitment for Virola michelii (Myristicaceae) in French Guiana1

The effects of dispersal pattern (seeds in small clumps vs. seeds scattered in pairs) and distance to the nearest Carapa procera (Meliaceae; a tree that produces seeds preferred by terrestrial vertebrates) on survival of seeds and seedlings were examined for the animal–dispersed tree species Virola michelii (Myristicaceae) in a mature forest‘at Paracou, French Guiana, in 1992 and 1993. We assessed the putative role of ground–dwelling mammalian herbivores, rodents, and ungulates that filter the seed shadow, acting either as dispersers or predators and thus modifying the original pattern of seed dispersal made by frugivores. We measured the effects of simulated seed burial by rodents using marked seeds and quantified the effect of protecting seeds and seedlings from ground–dwelling vertebrates on seedling germination and survival with fence exclosures in 1992. Dispersal pattern had short–term but no long–term effects on the proportion of V. michelii seeds that survived one year later as seedlings. In the short term, within six weeks, clumped seeds survived better than scattered seeds in both years. Marked seeds that were removed from their site of dispersal were eaten; rodents only rarely buried seeds of V. michelii, and seed burial reduced seed and seedling survivorship. The combined effect of the factors year and Carapa proximity significantly affected seed survival within six weeks. Although six–week seed survival was greater in 1993 than in 1992, seedling establishment was lower in 1993 than in 1992 following a lower rainfall regime during the key period of seed germination (February). One–year seed and seedling survivorship was similar between treatments and years. Seed survival and seedling establishment in V. michelii was dependent on vertebrates in the short term and on climate in the long term. Overall, seed and seedling survivorship depended on a combination of these factors.     

Litter effects on seedling establishment interact with seed position and earthworm activity

Seedling establishment is influenced by litter cover and by seed predators, but little is known about interactions between these two factors. We tested their effects on emergence of five typical grassland species in a microcosm experiment. We manipulated the amounts of grass litter, seed sowing position and earthworm activity to determine whether: (i) the protective effect of litter against seed predation depends on cover amount and seed sowing position, i.e., on top or beneath litter; (ii) seed transport by earthworms changes the effect of seed sowing position on seedling emergence; and (iii) seeds transported into deeper soil layers by earthworms are still germinable. Litter cover and presence of earthworms lowered seedling emergence. The impact of seed position increased with seed size. Emergence of large-seeded species was reduced when sown on the surface. Additionally, we found an important seed position × earthworm interaction related to seed size. Emergence of large-seeded species sown on top of the litter was up to three times higher when earthworms were present than without earthworms. Earthworms also significantly altered the depth distribution of seeds in the soil and across treatments: on average 6% of seeds germinated after burial. In contrast to the seed position effect, we found no size effect on mobility and germinability of seeds after burial in the soil. Nevertheless, the fate of different-sized seeds may differ. While burial will remove large seeds from the regeneration pool, it may enhance seed bank build up in small-seeded species. Consequently, changes in the amount of litter cover and the invertebrate community play a significant role in plant community composition.     

Germination and emergence of annual species and burial depth: Implications for restoration ecology

Due to the high content of viable seeds, topsoil is usually spread on ground left bare during railway and motorway construction to facilitate the regeneration of vegetation cover. However, during handling of the topsoil, seeds are often buried deeply and they cannot germinate or the seedlings cannot emerge from depth. This study experimentally explores the predictive value of seed mass for seed germination, mortality and seedling emergence at different burial depths for 13 common annual species in semiarid Mediterranean environments. We separate the effect of burial depth on germination and emergence by means of two experiments. In the germination experiment, five replicates of 20 seeds for each species were buried at depths ranging from 0 to 4 cm under greenhouse conditions. Germinated and empty or rotten seeds were counted after 8 weeks. In the emergence experiment, five replicates of four newly-germinated seeds per species were buried at the same depths under controlled conditions and emergence was recorded after 3 weeks. The effect of burial depth on percentage of germination and seedling emergence was dependent on seed size. Although all species showed a decrease in germination with burial depth, this decrease was greater for small-than large-seeded species. Percentage of emergence was positively related to seed mass but negatively related to burial depth. Seed mortality was higher for small-than large-seeded species, but there was no general effect of burial depth on this variable. Thus, the current practice of spreading 30 cm deep layers of topsoil in post-construction restoration projects is unadvisable. In this restoration scenario, thinner layers of topsoil should be used to achieve the maximum potential of the topsoil for germination and seedling establishment.     

Factors Influencing Seedling Establishment Rates in Zostera marina and Their Implications for Seagrass Restoration

Selection of strategies to efficiently utilize limited seed supplies in efforts to restore the seagrass Zostera marina (eelgrass) requires a better understanding of the processes that limit seedling establishment at potential restoration sites. We investigated the effect of seed distribution timing on seedling establishment and tested for interactive effects of seed burial and distribution timing. We also investigated the effect of habitat type on seedling establishment by distributing Z. marina seeds inside and outside of established Ruppia maritima (widgeongrass) patches and examined mechanisms causing habitat differences by manipulating seed position (buried or unburied) and vulnerability to seed predators (unprotected or protected in packets). Seeds distributed on the sediment surface in the summer (July or August) produced fewer seedlings than seeds distributed in fall (October) in five of six trials over 3 years. Seed burial increased success rates for seeds distributed in summer at one of two sites tested, eliminating the effect of season, but reduced success at the other site. Seeds placed in R. maritima generally produced fewer seedlings than seeds in bare sand, and although seed burial and protection in packets increased success in bare sand at three of four sites, the effect was less consistent in R. maritima. We conclude that seed predation and physical interactions were influential in reducing seedling establishment in R. maritima, contrary to hypotheses positing a nursery role for existing vegetation. Efficient restoration efforts with Z. marina seeds should target unvegetated areas after summertime sources of mortality have diminished. Direct seed burial may enhance seedling establishment rates.