NEW MEMBRANE FORMATION DURING CYTOKINESIS IN NORMAL AND CYTOCHALASIN B-TREATED EGGS OF XENOPUS LAEVIS : I. Electron Microscope Observations

A method is described for measuring and calculating the preexisting surface in uncleaved Xenopus eggs and the rate of surface growth in cleaving eggs. Surface-marking experiments with cytochalasin B-treated eggs show that the unpigmented surface grows by de novo formation and not by expansion of preexisting pigmented surface. The onset of new surface formation during first cleavage was studied by using transmission electron microscope and scanning electron microscope techniques. At 3–4 min and at 7–8 min after the onset of cleavage the eggs were fixed in the presence of ruthenium red (RR). Evidence is presented that unpigmented surface representing new membrane comes into appearance between four and eight min. This surface has a selective binding capacity for RR. Concomitantly with the appearance of new membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) cisternae are in continuity with, and dense cytoplasmic inclusions coalesce with, the membrane along the furrow. The latter give rise to liposome-like bodies. The possibility is discussed that the ER cisternae transport a surface exudate (a carbohydrate complex), that the dense cytoplasmic inclusions represent pools of membrane precursor, and that membranogenesis takes place by direct insertion of pooled precursors into the cell surface. In a second paper, these findings will be correlated with electrophysiological measurements.     

用DNA酶切小分子片段在非洲爪蟾卵提取物中实现非细胞体系核装配

用质粒ｐＢＲ３２２的ＤＮＡ酶切片段,长度分别为７５０、３７５和１８６ｂｐ作为外源ＤＮＡ在非洲爪蟾 卵提取物中实现了非细胞体系的核装配（核重建）。将分离纯化得到的 ＰＢＲ３２２ ＤＮＡ酶切后经低熔 点琼脂糖回收ＤＮＡ片段,长度为７５０、３７５和１８６ｂｐ,分别加入到爪蟾卵提取物再生系统中温育, 经ＤＡＰＩ染色、孚尔根染色及电子显微镜观察发现能装配大量的重建核。显微分光光度法研究表 明,ＤＮＡ片段在诱导形成重建核的过程中发生了明显的凝集－会凝集变化。α－３２Ｐ－ｄＣＴＰ掺入重建核 的液闪计数结果表明,ＤＮＡ酶切小分子片段诱导形成的重建核具有较高的ＤＮＡ复制活性,而且复 制活性在一定范围内与加入的ＤＮＡ片段长度呈正相关。实验结果表明,非细胞体系中诱导的核重 建不仅与外源ＤＮＡ的种类无关,与外源ＤＮＡ的长度也没有关系。     

应用大肠杆菌染色体DNA在非洲爪蟾卵提取物实现诱导非细胞体系核装配

近年来我们实验室已成功地利用细胞核体外组装的实验模式,将多种生物的DNA在非洲爪蟾卵提取物中实现了非细胞体系核装配。但亲缘关系最远的原核生物的染色体DNA是否也能在此真核体系中进行核装配一直没有报道。我们以大肠杆菌染色体DNA为材料,研究了它诱导的非细胞体系核装配。在光镜与电镜水平观察了核装配的过程。显微分光光度计扫描显示DNA片段在核装配过程中经历了凝集-去凝集的变化。证明大肠杆菌染色体DNA也能诱导爪蟾卵提取物装配成具有典型结构的核。α-~(32)P-dCTP的掺入实验表明重建核具有较高的DNA复制活性。     

利用腺病毒DNA与爪蟾卵提取物在非细胞体系中重构细胞核(简报)

1983年,Lohka和Masui首先报道,用精子染色质与卵提取物一起温育,可以组装成具有典型结构的细胞核。这种核不仅具有合成DNA的能力,而且还能进入M期。同年,     

THE TIMING OF MEIOSIS AND DNA SYNTHESIS DURING EARLY OOGENESIS IN THE TOAD, XENOPUS LAEVIS

Recently metamorphosed female Xenopus laevis toads were injected with tritiated thymidine. Animals were kept at 20°C and were sacrificed 1–23 days after isotope injection. Radio-autographs of squash preparations of the ovaries were made. The progress of labeled germ cell nuclei was followed to obtain information on the time course of early meiosis and extra-chromosomal DNA synthesis. Premeiotic S was estimated to take not more than 7 days. Leptotene takes 4 days, zygotene takes 5 days, and pachytene was estimated to be completed in about 18 days. The major period of amplification of the extrachromosomal DNA occurs in pachytene and takes about 13 days. A low level of synthesis was observed before and after this period, in zygotene and late pachytene-early diplotene, extending the total time for extrachromosomal DNA synthesis during meiosis to about 18 days. These data allowed the calculation to be made that one round of replication of the amplified DNA takes between 1.2 and 3.0 days. It was also found that in both oogonial and premeiotic interphases, the nucleolus-associated DNA shows asynchronous (probably late) labeling with respect to the chromosomes.     

LOCALIZATION AND SEGREGATION OF MATERNAL RNA'S DURING EARLY CLEAVAGE OF XENOPUS LAEVIS EMBRYOS

The localization and segregation of maternal RNA's during early cleavage of Xenopus laevis embryos were studied. Blastomeres and hemispheres of eggs and early embryos were separated manually and the amounts of ribosomal RNA and poly(A) ⁺RNA extracted from each blastomere and hemisphere were determined by optical density measurement and by ³H-poly(U) hybridization, respectively. It was found that both kinds of the maternal RNA's were more abundant (two-thirds of the total) in the animal hemisphere (cells), while they were evenly distributed between the dorsal and ventral halves. This pattern of localization remained unchanged from the egg to the blastula stage, indicating that these maternal RNA's were segregated into blastomeres quite simply by cell division. Gel electrophoresis showed that the size distributions of poly(A) ⁺RNA and poly(A) sequences obtained from different blastomeres of 8-cell embryos did not differ greatly. It was also found that cytoplasmic polyadenylation of maternal RNA, which occurs during early cleavage and blastulation, took place equally in all regions of the cleaving embryos, suggesting no regional difference in the localization of maternally inherited nonpolyadenylated RNA. These observations are discussed in relation to previous findings on differences along the animal-vegetal and dorsal-ventral axes of the early amphibian embryo.     

INITIATION OF RIBOSOMAL RNA SYNTHESIS AND CELL DIVISION IN XENOPUS LAEVIS EMBRYOS

Isolated cells from animal or vegetal pole regions of Xenopus blastulae were cultured, and the timings of rRNA synthesis and cell division were determined. rRNA synthesis was measured by the incorporation of (³H)methionine into rRNA, and cell division was studied by the decrease in cell size and rRNA content. Nucleoli in these cells were also examined. It was found that these animal and vegetal cells continue to divide under the present conditions in the same temporal pattern as that of intraembryonic cells, and that rRNA synthesis begins soon after the cells have undergone the division which probably corresponds to the 15th division following fertilization. At this time, the rRNA content and concentration of the animal and vegetal cells are significantly different. These results seem to support the view that cell division is involved in some way in the mechanism determining the timing of rRNA synthesis in early embryonic development.     

BIOCHEMICAL AND CYTOLOGICAL EXAMINATION ON THE INITIATION OF RIBOSOMAL RNA SYNTHESIS DURING GASTRULATION OF XENOPUS LAEVIS

Embryos of Xenopus laevis at stage 6 were labeled with ¹⁴CO₂ for 4 hr and then allowed to develop under nonradioactive conditions until they reached stage 9, 10, 11 or 12. RNA was extracted and electrophoresed on a polyacrylamide-agarose gel. From the pattern of newly synthesized RNAs, the incorporation into 18S and 28S ribosomal RNAs was measured. At the same time, the specific radioactivity of nucleoside triphosphates in the acid-soluble fraction was determined. On the basis of the results obtained, the absolute amounts of the RNAs synthesized were calculated. The results show that the synthesis of the ribosomal RNAs begins, or is at least markedly activated, around stage 10. Moreover, cytological examination has shown that cells with nucleolated nuclei appeared between stages 9 and 10 and increased thereafter.
Thus, from the results of these studies along two different lines, it can safely be concluded that the initiation of 18S and 28S RNA synthesis takes place around stage 10.     

A METHOD FOR THE REMOVAL OF THE JELLY AND VITELLINE MEMBRANE FROM THE EMBRYOS OF XENOPUS LAEVIS

A simple procedure is described for removing the jelly and vitelline membrane of Xenopus laevis embryos. The method is based on the observation that incubation of the embryos in the mixed solution of trypsin and sodium thioglycolate at pH 8.0 causes effective dissolution of these structures. This solution is equally effective in this respect on the embryos at different developmental stages. Normal development is obtained from all of the denuded neurulae and from many of the denuded earlier embryos. Some chemical properties of the jelly and the vitelline membrane of Xenopus laevis are discussed based upon these observations.     

邻近组织对爪蟾脊索决定和分化的影响

影响爪蟾脊索决定和分化的因素,过去未见报道。本文采用体外共同培养的方法检测了肌节和神经上皮在脊索决定和分化中的作用。结果指出,脊索与两侧肌节共同培养,肌节的量为脊索的决定和分化提供了足够的条件,一侧肌节的量满足不了使所有脊索进行决定和分化的条件,在少数例子里甚至分化不出脊索。在神经上皮的包裹中,部份脊索细胞向肌细胞分化,单独与脊索接触也不利于脊索的正常分化。讨论了中轴器官之间在决定和分化中错综复杂的关系。     

ORGANIZATION AND REPLICATION ACTIVITY OF THE MITOCHONDRIAL MASS OF OOGONIA AND PREVITELLOGENIC OOCYTES IN XENOPUS LAEVIS

The origin of the mitochondrial mass, previously well characterized in Xenupus diplotene oocytes, has been traced up to oogonia by means of electron microscopy. A polarized organization of the oogonia and of the oocytes of the succeeding stages was observed. The mitochondrial cloud was found to be built up in the centriolar region near the site where the chromosomes will be implanted along the nuclear envelope at the "bouquet" stage. Autoradiographic studies of thymidine incorporation into mitochondrial DNA suggest that mitochondrial DNA synthesis is active throughout this early period of oogenesis.     

自由基对细胞膜和Ach受体效应的损伤及枸杞多糖的防护作用

本研究将爪蟾卵母细胞暴露于黄嘌呤氧化酶－次黄嘌呤（ＸＯ－ＨＰＸ）反应系统,观察自由基对细胞膜及其乙酰胆碱（Ａｃｈ）受体的损伤,结果表明,在自由基的作用下膜被动电学参数发生显著变化,其效果与ＸＯ－ＨＰＸ的浓度和作用时间成正比,ＸＯ－ＨＰＸ作用２ｈ不影响膜功能,大于４ｈ各项膜功能指标明显下降,Ａｃｈ极化反应减弱,上升时间延长,去极化幅度下降,下降１／２时间缩短;超氧化物歧化酶（ＳＯＤ）可消除自由基对上述膜参数的影响。枸杞多糖可以使损伤膜的被动电学参数改善,但对Ａｃｈ去极化反应无恢复作用。结果提示,ＸＯ－ＨＰＸ反应系统是通过产生超氧阴离子自由基造成细胞膜和Ａｃｈ受体的损伤,枸杞多糖可对抗自由基对质膜的作用,但对Ｍ样受体无效。     

STUDIES ON THE GASTRULATION OF AMPHIBIAN EMBRYOS: NUMERICAL CRITERIA FOR STAGE DETERMINATION DURING BLASTULATION AND GASTRULATION OF XENOPUS LAEVIS

The changing external features of Xenopus laevis embryos were examined from the first cleavage through the late gastrula as a means to develop quantitative criteria for the determination of stages for this period. During blastulation, the cell number along arcs centered on the animal or vegetal pole and representing one-sixth of a meridian - called the MCNo. - can be used as such a criterion. During gastrulation, the width of the blastopore divided by the diameter of the whole embryo can be used as such a criterion.     

CONTROL OF 5S RNA SYNTHESIS DURING EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ANUCLEOLATE AND PARTIAL NUCLEOLATE MUTANTS OF XENOPUS LAEVIS

Ribosomes of all eukaryotes contain a single molecule of 5S, 18S, and 28S RNA. In the frog Xenopus laevis the genes which code for 18S and 28S RNA are located in the nucleolar organizer, but these genes are not linked to the 5S RNA genes. Therefore the synthesis of the three ribosomal RNAs provides a model system for studying interchromosomal aspects of gene regulation. In order to determine if the synthesis of the three ribosomal RNAs are interdependent, the relative rate of 5S RNA synthesis was measured in anucleolate mutants (o/o), which do not synthesize any 18S or 28S RNA, and in partial nucleolate mutants (p^l-1/o), which synthesize 18S and 28S RNA at 25% of the normal rate. Since the o/o and p^l-1/o mutants have a complete and partial deletion of 18S and 28S RNA genes respectively, but the normal number of 5S RNA genes, they provide a unique system in which to study the dependence of 5S RNA synthesis on the synthesis of 18S and 28S RNA. Total RNA was extracted from embryos labeled during different stages of development and analyzed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Quite unexpectedly it was found that 5S RNA synthesis in o/o and p^l-1/o mutants proceeds at the same rate as it does in normal embryos. Furthermore, 5S RNA synthesis is initiated normally at gastrulation in o/o mutants in the complete absence of 18S and 28S RNA synthesis.     

MOTILITY OF DISSOCIATED EMBRYONIC CELLS IN XENOPUS LAEVIS: ITS SIGNIFICANCE TO MORPHOGENETIC MOVEMENTS *

Motilities of dissociated embryonic cells of Xenopus laevis were investigated in order to elucidate the role of cell motilities in gastrulation. Various shapes and motile forms of the cells were classified into six types, i.e., globular cells with large lobopodia, locomotive vermiform cells with a hyaline cap, globular cells with many bulbous processes, oval cells with filiform pseudopodia, flattened cells with membraneous processes or lamellipodia which attached to glass, and attached cells with hyaline lobopodia. Cells dissociated from the ectodermal region began to exhibit pseudopodial activity at stage 11, while isolated mesoderm cells did so at stage 10 1/2. The pseudopodial activity of cells from these two regions increased coincidently with gastrulation. Approximately 10% of the cells isolated from the dorsal part of the neurula transformed into vermiform cells. Cells dissociated from the endodermal region were less motile during gastrulation. Invaginating cells of the presumptive pharyngeal endoderm were also immotile, when they were isolated.     

凝集素抑制林蛙卵裂沟新膜外露的作用

剥去受精膜的林蛙卵分裂时,分裂沟中的新膜会暴露出来。林蛙老膜上有大量均匀分布的麦胚和大豆凝集素受体。卵裂前,将剥去受精膜的蛙卵浸于上述的凝集素溶液中,新膜的外露就被抑制。凝集素愈浓,浸泡时间愈长,抑制愈大。在这些卵的表面可看到一层较厚的由凝集素引起的外被。碱处理过的受精卵表面,凝集素受体减少,凝集素抑制新膜外露的作用亦减弱,由凝集素引起的外被亦薄。凝集素是多价的,会在细胞表面产生交链,形成“外骨骼”,抑制新膜外露。凝集素也可通过受体,影响微丝,产生作用。