In vitro inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication by Mentha suaveolens essential oil and its main component piperitenone oxide

Several essential oils exert in vitro activity against bacteria and viruses and, among these latter, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is known to develop resistance to commonly used antiviral agents. Thus, the effects of the essential oil derived from Mentha suaveolens (EOMS) and its active principle piperitenone oxide (PEO) were tested in in vitro experimental model of infection with HSV-1. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was determined at 5.1 μg/ml and 1.4 μg/ml for EOMS and PEO, respectively. Australian tea tree oil (TTO) was used as control, revealing an IC₅₀ of 13.2 μg/ml. Moreover, a synergistic action against HSV-1 was observed when each oil was added in combination with acyclovir. In order to find out the mechanism of action, EOMS, PEO and TTO were added to the cells at different times during the virus life-cycle. Results obtained by yield reduction assay indicated that the antiviral activity of both compounds was principally due to an effect after viral adsorption. Indeed, no reduction of virus yield was observed when cells were treated during viral adsorption or pre-treated before viral infection. In particular, PEO exerted a strong inhibitory effect by interfering with a late step of HSV-1 life-cycle. HSV-1 infection is known to induce a pro-oxidative state with depletion of the main intracellular antioxidant glutathione and this redox change in the cell is important for viral replication. Interestingly, the treatment with PEO corrected this deficit, thus suggesting that the compound could interfere with some redox-sensitive cellular pathways exploited for viral replication. Overall our data suggest that both EOMS and PEO could be considered good candidates for novel anti-HSV-1 strategies, and need further exploration to better characterize the targets underlying their inhibition.     

溶瘤I型单纯疱疹病毒的研究进展

溶瘤病毒(Oncolytic virus,OV)是可以靶向感染并杀伤肿瘤细胞的一类病毒,其中溶瘤I型单纯疱疹病毒(Oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 1,OHSV-1)是目前研究最多的溶瘤病毒之一,可通过多种策略进行构建,已有多种OHSV-1进入临床试验,大量结果显示其具有较好的安全性和有效性。本文主要介绍OHSV-1的分子生物学特性与优势、主要的开发及靶向性策略、各类OHSV-1的研究进展以及目前存在的问题等。     

High GC content of simple sequence repeats in Herpes simplex virus type 1 genome

The presence, locations and composition of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) in Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) genome were extracted and analyzed by using the software Imperfect Microsatellite Extractor (IMEx). There were 663 mon-, 502 di-, 184 tri-, 20 tetra-, 4 penta- and 4 hexanucleotide SSRs that were observed in different distribution between coding and noncoding regions in the HSV-1 genome. G/C, GC/CG, and (GGC)(n) were predominant in mononucleotide, dinucletide, trinucleotide repeats respectively. Indeed, the results showed that GC content in simple sequence repeats was notably higher than that in entire HSV-1 genome. Our data might be helpful for studying the pathogenesis, genome structure and evolution of HSV-1.     

Virucidal effect of peppermint oil on the enveloped viruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro

The virucidal effect of peppermint oil, the essential oil of Mentha piperita, against herpes simplex virus was examined. The inhibitory activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) was tested in vitro on RC-37 cells using a plaque reduction assay. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of peppermint oil for herpes simplex virus plaque formation was determined at 0.002% and 0.0008% for HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. Peppermint oil exhibited high levels of virucidal activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in viral suspension tests. At noncytotoxic concentrations of the oil, plaque formation was significantly reduced by 82% and 92% for HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. Higher concentrations of peppermint oil reduced viral titers of both herpesviruses by more than 90%. A clearly time-dependent activity could be demonstrated, after 3 h of incubation of herpes simplex virus with peppermint oil an antiviral activity of about 99% could be demonstrated. In order to determine the mode of antiviral action of the essential oil, peppermint oil was added at different times to the cells or viruses during infection. Both herpesviruses were significantly inhibited when herpes simplex virus was pretreated with the essential oil prior to adsorption. These results indicate that peppermint oil affected the virus before adsorption, but not after penetration into the host cell. Thus this essential oil is capable to exert a direct virucidal effect on HSV. Peppermint oil is also active against an acyclovir resistant strain of HSV-1 (HSV-1-ACV(res)), plaque formation was significantly reduced by 99%. Considering the lipophilic nature of the oil which enables it to penetrate the skin, peppermint oil might be suitable for topical therapeutic use as virucidal agent in recurrent herpes infection.     

Reconstitution of herpes simplex virus type 1 nuclear capsid egress in vitro

Newly assembled herpesvirus capsids travel from the nucleus to the plasma membrane by a mechanism that is poorly understood. Furthermore, the contribution of cellular proteins to this egress has yet to be clarified. To address these issues, an in vitro nuclear egress assay that reproduces the exit of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) capsids from nuclei isolated from infected cells was established. As expected, the assay has all the hallmarks of intracellular transport assays, namely, a dependence on time, energy, and temperature. Surprisingly, it is also dependent on cytosol and was slightly enhanced by infected cytosol, suggesting an implication of both host and viral proteins in the process. The capsids escaped these nuclei by budding through the inner nuclear membrane, accumulated as enveloped capsids between the two nuclear membranes, and were released in cytosol exclusively as naked capsids, exactly as in intact cells. This is most consistent with the view that the virus escapes by crossing the two nuclear membranes rather than through nuclear pores. Unexpectedly, nuclei isolated at the nonpermissive temperature from cells infected with a U(L)26 thermosensitive protease mutant (V701) supported capsid egress. Although electron microscopy, biochemical, and PCR analyses hinted at a likely reconstitution of capsid maturation, DNA encapsidation could not be confirmed by a traditional SQ test. This assay should prove very useful for identification of the molecular players involved in HSV-1 nuclear egress.     

Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 ICP27 Protein： Its Expression, Purification and Specific Antiserum Production

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is the causative agent of cold sores and other more serious diseases. HSV-1 infected-cell protein 27 (ICP27) is an immediate-early regulatory phosphoprotein homologous to gene products identified in all classes of herpesviruses so far. To raise the antiserum to ICP27 for further characterization of its biological function, the ICP27 gene was cloned into the pET-28a (+) vector, then ICP27 protein was expressed in E. Coli and purified by nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni2+-NTA) affinity resin column,finally the purified protein was used to raise antiserum. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the antiserum recognized the recombinant protein, and the antiserum was able to probe the ICP27 in HSV-1 infected cells with high specificity by immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Therefore, the specific antiserum will provide a valuable tool for further studies investigating ICP27's biological function during HSV-1 infection.     

Antiviral activity of Lactobacillus brevis towards herpes simplex virus type 2: role of cell wall associated components

The aim of this research was to study the mechanisms of Lactobacillus brevis antiviral activity towards HSV-2 and to identify the bacterial components responsible for the inhibiting effect. Bacterial extract and cell walls were prepared by lysozyme digestion of L. brevis cells untreated or treated with LiCl to remove S-layer proteins. Bacterial extract and cell wall fragments showed a dose dependent inhibitory effect on HSV-2 multiplication. In order to characterize the inhibitory activity of L. brevis, the bacterial extract was subjected to different physical and chemical treatments. The inhibitory activity was resistant to high temperature and proteases digestion and appeared to be associated with compounds with a molecular weight higher than 10 kDa. DNA, RNA and lipids isolated from bacterial cells were devoid of inhibitory effect. The antiviral activity of both bacterial extract and cell wall fragments obtained from L. brevis cells after the S-layer removal was significantly reduced compared to untreated cells suggesting that the inhibitory activity is likely due to a heat-resistant non-protein cell surface bacterial component.     

Release of a virus coded glycoprotein from herpes simplex virus type 1 infected cells

HEp-2 cells, which were infected with HSV-1, excrete besides other proteins a soluble glycoprotein (Mr 125000–130000) related to the virus protein gC. The excretion of the glycoprotein and the production of extracellular virus particles is reduced to a similar extent when the cells were treated with monensin. Possible consequences of the excretion of soluble viral proteins to a modulation of the immune response are discussed.Abbreviations HSV-1 Herpes simplex virus type 1 - PAGE Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - SDS Sodium dodecylsulfate     

单纯疱疹病毒2型潜伏相关转录体ORF1的表达及其抗凋亡作用

旨在研究单纯疱疹病毒2型潜伏相关转录体 (LAT) 开放读码框1 (ORF1) 对放线菌素D诱导的凋亡作用的影响。以HSV-2 333基因组为模板PCR扩增ORF1片段,构建重组质粒pEGFP-ORF1,转染Vero细胞,RT-PCR鉴定ORF1的表达。放线菌素D诱导Vero细胞凋亡,通过荧光显微镜观察凋亡小体,Hochest33258荧光染色观察细胞形态变化,MTT检测细胞活性,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率。双酶切和测序确认pEGFP-ORF1构建成功,RT-PCR表明该真核表达载体能在Vero细胞中高效表达。转染了pEGFP-ORF1的Vero细胞经放线菌素D凋亡诱导后,Hochest33258染色显示细胞形态正常。MTT结果表明转染了重组质粒pEGFP-ORF1的Vero细胞经放线菌素D凋亡诱导后Vero细胞活性与未经任何处理的正常对照组相比,无显著差异 (P＞0.05),但高于放线菌素D诱导凋亡的Vero细胞组及与转染空质粒pEGFP-C2且放线菌素D诱导凋亡的Vero细胞组,差异具有统计学意义 (P＜0.05)。流式结果表明,转染重组质粒pEGFP-ORF1且经放线菌素D诱导凋亡组与正常对照组凋亡率差异不显著 (P＞0.05),而显著低于放线菌素D诱导凋亡组和转染空质粒pEGFP-C2且经放线菌素D诱导凋亡组 (P＜0.05)。HSV-2 LAT ORF1具有抗放线菌素D诱导的Vero细胞的凋亡作用。     

Protein arginine methyltransferase 1 regulates herpes simplex virus replication through ICP27 RGG-box methylation

Protein arginine methylation is involved in viral infection and replication through the modulation of diverse cellular processes including RNA metabolism, cytokine signaling, and subcellular localization. It has been suggested previously that the protein arginine methylation of the RGG-box of ICP27 is required for herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) viral replication and gene expression in vivo. However, a cellular mediator for this process has not yet been identified. In our current study, we show that the protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1) is a cellular mediator of the arginine methylation of ICP27 RGG-box. We generated arginine substitution mutants in this domain and examined which arginine residues are required for methylation by PRMT1. R138, R148 and R150 were found to be the major sites of this methylation but additional arginine residues serving as minor methylation sites are still required to sustain the fully methylated form of ICP27 RGG. We also demonstrate that the nuclear foci-like structure formation, SRPK interactions, and RNA-binding activity of ICP27 are modulated by the arginine methylation of the ICP27 RGG-box. Furthermore, HSV-1 replication is inhibited by hypomethylation of this domain resulting from the use of general PRMT inhibitors or arginine mutations. Our data thus suggest that the PRMT1 plays a key role as a cellular regulator of HSV-1 replication through ICP27 RGG-box methylation.     

Alkaline phosphodiesterase I and alkaline phosphatase I in plasma membranes of herpes simplex virus type 1 transformed hamster cells

Plasma membrane extracts from Herpes simplex virus type 1 transformed hamster embryo fibroblasts were chromatographed on Lens culinaris lectin coupled to Sepharose (LcH-Sepharose) and analysed by dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Coomassie blue-staining revealed two major protein bands with apparent molecular weights of 125 000 and of about 75 000–90 000. In plasma membranes isolated from these tumor cells prior labeled with [³H]fucose or [³H]glucosamine these bands contained the highest amounts of incorporated radioactivity. Separation by LeH-Sepharose-affinity chromatography as well as metabolic labeling clearly demonstrates their glycoprotein character. The 125 000 protein coincides with alkaline phosphodiesterase I activity with a K_m of 6 · 10^?4 M for TMP p-nitrophenyl ester and is competitively inhibited by UDP-N-acetylglucosamine. This enzymatic activity is also present in normal hamster embryo fibroblasts. Gel electrophoresis of the Lens culinaris lectin-binding glycoproteins from plasma membranes of normal hamster embryo fibroblasts additionally revealed a strong alkaline phosphatase activity represented by an apparent molecular weight of 150 000, while HSV₁ hamster tumor cells contain only a very weak activity of this enzyme activity. HSV-lytically infected cells, however, have unchanged levels of alkaline phosphatase activity, whereas alkaline phosphodiesterase activity increases slightly.     

us3基因的缺失对单纯疱疹病毒1型毒力和抗凋亡功能的影响

利用CRISPR/Cas9系统使单纯疱疹病毒1型(herpes simplex virus type 1,HSV-1) ul7、ul41、LAT 基因缺失构建M3减毒株(M3株),在M3株基础上通过缺失 us3 得到M4突变株(M4株)。本研究旨在分析野毒株(McKrae株)、M3株与M4株在毒力和抗细胞凋亡方面的差异。结果表明,McKrae组出现明显的临床症状,且100%死亡(P<0.001),而M3、M4组未出现临床症状。M4组小鼠组织中病毒载量明显低于McKrae组和M3组;病理学检测表明,McKrae组出现蛛网膜出血、胶质小结等现象,而M3、M4组未见病理损伤,M4组炎性因子表达与McKrae、M3组相比也显著下降(P<0.01);免疫后M4组较M3组出现高水平的中和抗体、γ干扰素(interferon γ,IFN-γ)和白细胞介素4(interleukin 4,IL-4)抗原特异性T细胞;McKrae株再次感染时,M4组小鼠组织中病毒载量明显低于对照组和M3组;在人急性T细胞淋巴瘤细胞中,M4株相比McKrae株和M3株可明显诱导细胞凋亡。     

A new N-methyl thymine derivative comprising a dihydroxyisobutenyl unit as ligand for thymidine kinase of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1 TK)

Molecular modeling and phosphorylation assay in vitro were employed to select a novel unsaturated 1,3-dihydroxyisobutenyl thymine derivative 6 as ligand for HSV-1 TK which may be of interest as lead for the development of an positron emission tomography (PET) imaging agent. Compound 6 was successfully prepared using modified approaches. A significant improvement over the syntheses involving pathways A and B (1% and 3% overall yield, respectively), was observed using synthetic route C (14% overall yield).     

Pentacyclic triterpenes in birch bark extract inhibit early step of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication

Antiviral agents frequently applied for treatment of herpesvirus infections include acyclovir and its derivatives. The antiviral effect of a triterpene extract of birch bark and its major pentacyclic triterpenes, i.e. betulin, lupeol and betulinic acid against acyclovir-sensitive and acyclovir-resistant HSV type 1 strains was examined. The cytotoxic effect of a phytochemically defined birch bark triterpene extract (TE) as well as different pentacyclic triterpenes was analyzed in cell culture, and revealed a moderate cytotoxicity on RC-37 cells. TE, betulin, lupeol and betulinic acid exhibited high levels of antiviral activity against HSV-1 in viral suspension tests with IC₅₀ values ranging between 0.2 and 0.5 μg/ml. Infectivity of acyclovir-sensitive and clinical isolates of acyclovir-resistant HSV-1 strains was significantly reduced by all tested compounds and a direct concentration- and time-dependent antiherpetic activity could be demonstrated. In order to determine the mode of antiviral action, TE and the compounds were added at different times during the viral infection cycle. Addition of these drugs to uninfected cells prior to infection or to herpesvirus-infected cells during intracellular replication had low effect on virus multiplication. Minor virucidal activity of triterpenes was observed, however both TE and tested compounds exhibited high anti-herpetic activity when viruses were pretreated with these drugs prior to infection. Pentacyclic triterpenes inhibit acyclovir-sensitive and acyclovir-resistant clinical isolates of HSV-1 in the early phase of infection.