Two new coccidia (Apicomplexa:Eimeriidae) from the green peacock (Pavo muticus) from Saudi Arabia

Two new species of Eimeria were found from faecal samples of ten green peacocks (Pavo muticus) collected at Al-Kharj area, a central region of Saudi Arabia. Sporulated oocysts of Eimeria mutica n.sp. are ellipsoidal 23.1×17.4 (22.4–25.0×16.7–18.9) μm, with a smooth bilayered wall. A micropyle and bilobed polar body are present, but without an oocyst residuum. The sporocyst is an elongated-ovoid 13.7×6.2 (12.0–14.2×5.4–6.7) μm, with a Stieda body and a residuum. Sporulated oocysts of E. kharjensis n.sp. are subspherical 20.3×17.7 (19.0–21.5×16.2–18.7) μm, with a two layered wall and a single polar body. The micropyle is covered by a dome-shaped cap and the sporocyst is an elongate-ovoid 12.7×6.3 (11.9–13.5×5.4–6.8) μm, with a Stieda body. The sporocyst residuum is present as several small granules.     

The presence of the potentially toxic genera Ostreopsis and Coolia (Dinophyceae) in the North Aegean Sea, Greece

The examination of macrophyte, water and sediment samples, collected at depths less than 1.5 m from 50 different sites along the North Aegean coasts, has revealed, for the first time in Greek coastal waters, the presence of two Ostreopsis species (O. ovata and O. cf. siamensis) and Coolia monotis in the majority of the sampling sites (94% and 100%, respectively). Other epiphytic dinoflagellates of the genera Prorocentrum and Amphidinium and diatoms were accompanying species in this epiphytic community. Morphometric features, plate formula and thecal ornamentation were used for species identification. O. ovata cells were smaller in dorsoventral (DV) diameter and width (W) (26.18–61.88 μm and 13.09–47.60 μm, respectively) in comparison with O. cf. siamensis (35.70–65.45 μm and 23.80–49.98 μm, respectively). In contrast, the anterioposterior (AP) diameter of O. cf. siamensis was smaller (14.28–26.18 μm) resulting in DV/AP ≈ 3, whereas the above ratio for O. ovata was less than 2 (AP ranging between 14.28–35.70 μm). Moreover, the theca of O. ovata cells was ornamented with scattered pores, which fluctuated in a wider range (0.07–0.32 μm) than those of O. cf. siamensis (0.23–0.29 μm). Coolia monotis cells were almost round with average DV diameter 26.88 μm, AP 25.66 μm and width 26.76 μm. Small and large cells were recorded in both field and culture populations of Ostreopsis spp. and C. monotis, while hyaline cysts were observed for O. ovata. The presence of O. ovata and O. cf. siamensis exhibited a clear seasonal pattern dominating (maximum abundance up to 4.05 × 10⁵ cells gr⁻¹ fwm) the period from midsummer to late autumn in years 2003 and 2004, while C. monotis was found also in winter and spring months.     

Paralygodium meckertii sp. nov. (Schizaeaceae) from the Upper Cretaceous (Coniacian) of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada

More than 50 specimens of permineralized fertile pinnules with abaxially borne sporangia have been discovered in calcareous marine nodules from the Upper Cretaceous (Coniacian) Comox Formation from the Eden Main localities on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Isolated pinnules 1.6–3.0 mm wide × 1.6–2.8 mm long are lobed and abaxially enrolled to form irregular globose structures. Pyriform sporangia 216–300 μm wide × 360–468 μm long occur in two rows on the abaxial surface of pinnule lobes. Sporangia have an apical annulus of 15–18 cells. Spores are tetrahedral and trilete, 33–42 μm in diameter, with straight to concave interradial sides, laesurae extending nearly to the equator, and a psilate exine. Spores are assignable to the sporae dispersae genus Deltoidospora. Fertile pinnules are compared to fossils of Anemia poolensis and two previously described species of Paralygodium, and show closest similarities to P. vancouverensis from the Eocene of British Columbia. The Cretaceous Eden Main specimens differ in number of pinnule lobes and their morphology and are described as a new taxon: P. meckertii sp. nov. This discovery extends the Cretaceous geographic range of Paralygodium from Japan to North America and adds to our knowledge of the diversity of extinct schizaeaceous ferns.     

Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity of 18 prenylated flavonoids isolated from medicinal plants: Morus alba L., Morus mongolica Schneider, Broussnetia papyrifera (L.) Vent, Sophora flavescens Ait and Echinosophora koreensis Nakai

Antimicrobial activity of the 18 prenylated flavonoids, which were purified from five different medicinal plants, was evaluated by determination of MIC using the broth microdilution methods against four bacterial and two fungal microorganisms (Candida albicans, Saccaromyces cerevisiae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus epidermis and S. aureus). Papyriflavonol A, kuraridin, sophoraflavanone D and sophoraisoflavanone A exhibited a good antifungal activity with strong antibacterial activity. Kuwanon C, mulberrofuran G, albanol B, kenusanone A and sophoraflavanone G showed strong antibacterial activity with 5–30 μg/ml of MICs. Morusin, sanggenon B and D, kazinol B, kurarinone, kenusanone C and isosophoranone were effective to only gram positive bacteria, and broussochalcone A was effective to C. albicans. IC₅₀ values of papyriflavonol A, kuraridin, sophoraflavanone D, sophoraisoflavanone A and broussochalcone A in HepG2 cells were 20.9, 37.8, 39.1, 22.1, and 22.0 μg/ml, respectively. These results support the use of prenylated flavonoids in Asian traditional medicine to treat microbial infection and indicate a high potential for prenylated flavonoids as antimicrobial agents as well as anti-inflammatory agents.     

Taxonomic characterization of two marine peritrichous ciliates, Epicarchesium corlissi n. sp. and Pseudovorticella jiangi n. sp. (Ciliophora: Peritrichia), from northern China

Two new marine peritrich ciliates, Epicarchesium corlissi n. sp. and Pseudovorticella jiangi n. sp., were discovered in mariculture waters on the coast of northern China near Qingdao. Their morphology, infraciliature and silverline system were investigated based on both living and silver-impregnated specimens. E. corlissi is characterized as follows: marine Epicarchesium with dichotomously branched stalk; zooids elongate, approximately 60–70×25–35 μm in vivo; peristomial collar double-folded; macronucleus J-shaped; single, small contractile vacuole ventrally positioned; more than 60 striations between peristome and aboral trochal band, 13–18 from aboral trochal band to scopula; abstomal end of row 1 of infundibular polykinety 3 terminating at same level as rows 2 and 3 of infundibular polykinety 3; rows 2 and 3 of infundibular polykinety 3 much longer than row 1 and converging adstomally with infundibular polykinety 1. The new species P. jiangi is diagnosed as follows: marine Pseudovorticella; zooid inverted bell-shaped, approximately 80×60 μm in vivo and with a broad, flat, thin peristomial collar that measures approximately 90 μm across; pellicle with transparent cortical vesicles; macronucleus J-shaped; number of silverlines between peristome and aboral trochal band 20–24, from aboral trochal band to scopula 9–11; abstomal end of row 1 of infundibular polykinety 3 diverges from the other two rows of this polykinety and ends alongside row 3 of infundibular polykinety 2.     

Ultrastructural description of the life cycle of Nosema monorchis n. sp. (Microspora, Nosematidae), hyperparasite of Monorchis parvus (Digenea, Monorchiidae), intestinal parasite of Diplodus annularis (Pisces, Teleostei)

Life cycle stages of a new species of the genus Nosema Naegeli, 1857 (Microspora, Nosematidae), were examined by light and electron microscopy. It parasitizes the gut and the uterus of the digenean Monorchis parvus (Monorchiidae), in Diplodus annularis (Pisces, Teleostei). All stages were in close contact with the cytoplasm of the host cell and were probably all diplokaryotic. The divisions of meronts and sporonts were recognizable by the formation of spindle plaques at the surface of the nucleus. Spores were oval, measured 3.2±0.3×2.5±0.2 μm on ultrathin sections, and had a polar filament with 16–17 coils. The polaroplast presented two parts: an anterior region with closely packed lamellae and a posterior part with wider lamellae. This Nosema species is compared with the other microsporidian parasites of digeneans. This new species is named Nosema monorchis n. sp., after the generic name of its host.     

Updated hypothesis on the evolution of oligotrichid ciliates (Ciliophora, Spirotricha, Oligotrichida) based on somatic ciliary patterns and ontogenetic data

The two recently established genera ApostrombidiumXu et al., 2009 and VaristrombidiumXu et al., 2009 and the analysis of ontogenetic data in Strombidium constrictum, S. montagnesi, S. wilberti, Omegastrombidium elegans, and Paratontonia gracillima necessitated a revision of the hypothesis about the somatic ciliary pattern evolution in oligotrichid ciliates. As a consequence, the species-rich genus Strombidium was split, establishing two genera for species with a horizontal girdle kinety posterior to the oral primordium: Opisthostrombidium nov. gen. with the extrusome attachment sites along the anterior margin of the girdle kinety and posterior to the oral primordium and Foissneridium nov. gen. with the extrusome attachment sites distinctly apart from the girdle kinety and anterior to the oral primordium. The ontogenetic data revealed that the Ω-shaped girdle kinety pattern evolved convergently from the Pseudotontonia pattern with its horizontal girdle kinety in the tailed genus Paratontonia and from the Novistrombidium pattern with its dextrally spiralled girdle kinety in the tailless genus Omegastrombidium. The somatic ciliary pattern of the latter genus probably gave rise to the patterns of Apostrombidium and Varistrombidium.     

Evolution of ciliary patterns in the Oligotrichida (Ciliophora, Spirotricha) and its taxonomic implications

Although the somatic ciliature of the Oligotrichida typically comprises only a girdle and ventral kinety, a considerable diversity of ciliary patterns occurs. The four main girdle kinety patterns are identically found in tailed and tail-less species. The contractile tail has a complicated and unique ultrastructure and is potentially useful for the cell's movement and/or stabilization during feeding. Accordingly, I assume that this structure has evolved only once, namely, in the Tontoniidae nov. fam., and that the different girdle kinety patterns developed convergently in the tailed and tail-less taxa. Further distinct features suggest the establishment of the families Cyrtostrombidiidae nov. fam. (with cyrtos-like pharyngeal fibres and lack of ventral membranelles and endoral) and Pelagostrombidiidae nov. fam. (with neoformation organelle). An attempt is made to reconstruct the evolution of the kinety patterns based on morphologic, ontogenetic, and ultrastructural data. Some genera of tail-less Oligotrichida base on differences in the ciliary pattern; Omegastrombidium nov. gen. is erected for a further girdle kinety pattern. Likewise, the tailed genus Tontonia is split, resulting in two new genera, viz., Pseudotontonia nov. gen. and Spirotontonia nov. gen. Furthermore, the genus Spirostrombidium is split due to the different origin of the parallel course of girdle and ventral kinety, and Parallelostrombidium nov. gen. is established. However, the genus Thigmostrombidium is rejected because its enlarged thigmotactic membranelles are interpreted as an adaptation to the benthic lifestyle, which occurred several times within different girdle kinety patterns.     

Plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplasts of Solanum commersonii dun

Somatic fusion of Solanum commersonii, a frost tolerant wild potato species not crossable with Solanum tuberosum, relies on the possibility to isolate and culture protoplasts. This study was conducted to determine whether protoplasts could be isolated and plants regenerated in three S. commersonii accessions. Shoot cultures for protoplast isolation were maintained on Murashige and Skoog medium. Mesophyll protoplasts were isolated and cultured using a protocol originally described for S. tuberosum with some modifications. Differences were evident among the three accessions for protoplast yield, plating efficiency and regeneration frequency. Protoplast yield ranged from 3.0 to 8.5 × 10⁶ protoplasts per g of fresh tissue. At 1–2 × 10⁴ protoplasts ml⁻¹, which was the optimal plating density, 10–20% of plated protoplasts gave multicellular colonies. Regeneration of shoots was observed in two accessions only, the maximum regeneration frequency being 66%. In one of these accessions the reduction of sucrose concentration in regeneration media improved the regeneration frequency from 14 to 35%. About three hundred plants were rooted in vitro and successfully transferred to soil.     

Genetic relationship among species in the genus Sonneratia in China as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers

Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis was used to establish the genetic relationship among six Sonneratia species in China. A total of 100 primers were screened, of which 11 polymorphic and informative patterns were selected to determine the genetic relationship. Four hundred and eighty five DNA bands were amplified, among which 481 bands (99.18%) were polymorphic. The average number of DNA bands amplified by each primer was 44. Similarity coefficients were calculated and a dendrogram was constructed by using UPGMA algorithm. The six Sonneratia species were divided into two major groups. Group I consisted of Sonneratia caseolaris, Sonneratia × gulngai, Sonneratia alba, and Group II included Sonneratia × hainanensis, Sonneratia ovata and Sonneratia apetala. In Group I, S. × gulngai was close to S. alba, and in Group II, S. × hainanensis was close to S. ovata. The genetic relationships estimated by the polymorphism of ISSR markers are basically in agreement with those previously inferred by morphological data. Thus, ISSR approach is a reliable marker system that can be used to study genetic relationship in the genus Sonneratia.     

不同放牧强度下内蒙古温带典型草原优势种植物防御策略

放牧是草原的主要利用方式, 但对牧草造成了一定的生物胁迫。面对生存压力, 牧草会通过调节初级与次级代谢过程启动防御机制。该研究以内蒙古温带典型草原优势种植物为研究对象, 通过测定其在5个放牧水平下不同营养器官中的次级代谢产物及木质素等含量, 探讨大针茅(Stipa grandis)和羊草(Leymus chinensis)的各营养器官在防御机制中的角色及其碳氮权衡策略。结果表明: 面对放牧胁迫, 大针茅和羊草会产生大量的单宁、总黄酮、酚类以及生物碱等次级代谢产物, 并以叶片为主要的合成及储存器官。中度放牧使羊草的化学防御机制得到较充分的诱导及表达。但二者地上部分木质素含量并无显著增加, 因此, 二者在避牧性机制上更倾向于化学防御而非机械防御。由于羊草有更高的氮利用效率, 这使得羊草可以通过碳氮两种代谢途径进行防御, 但大针茅在生长初期并不能将氮高效地分配到化学防御中。大针茅和羊草在生长初期面对轻度放牧胁迫, 较多的资源仍然用于初级代谢, 增加了植物耐牧性。因此, 轻度放牧有利于提高牧草的碳氮资源利用效率、提高生态系统生产力及稳定性。     

内蒙古草原3种针茅属植物不同组织水平的生物量生殖分配

植物资源的生殖分配是链接进化生态学和功能生态学的纽带。该文从4个组织水平上研究了针茅属(Stipa) 3种植物克氏针茅(S. krylovii)、大针茅(S. grandis)和贝加尔针茅(S. baicalensis)的生物量生殖分配以及株丛和种群水平上可育散布体的数量和生物量。结果表明: 1) 3种针茅属植物在不同组织水平上的生物量生殖分配呈现明显分异。在株丛水平上, 克氏针茅和大针茅的株丛生物量分配到生殖枝的比例分别为44.3%和47.9%, 均显著高于贝加尔针茅的35.7%。在生殖枝水平, 克氏针茅的生殖枝生物量分配到穗器官的比例为30.3%, 显著低于大针茅的42.9%和贝加尔针茅的48.4%。在穗器官水平, 大针茅穗生物量分配到散布体的比例(63.9%)最高, 克氏针茅(49.9%)次之, 贝加尔针茅(39.1%)最低。在散布体水平, 贝加尔针茅的可育散布体生物量占散布体总生物量的比例为92.3%, 显著高于克氏针茅的67.2%和大针茅的71.3%。2) 尽管3种针茅属植物在不同组织水平上的生物量生殖分配存在显著差异, 但从最终可育散布体占株丛生物量的比例看, 克氏针茅为6.1%, 贝加尔针茅为6.3%, 大针茅为9.5%; 三者在生物量生殖分配上表现出明显的趋同效应。3) 3种针茅属植物生物量生殖分配的限制性环节存在显著差异。生殖枝向穗的生物量分配是克氏针茅和大针茅生殖分配的限制性环节, 株丛向生殖枝的生物量分配或穗器官向散布体的分配是贝加尔针茅生物量生殖分配的限制性环节。从可育散布体的数量和个体生物量看, 克氏针茅采取了倾向于拓展空间的增加散布体数量的策略, 而大针茅和贝加尔针茅逐步进化出了趋向于提高个体竞争能力的增加散布体个体生物量的策略。     

Quinolizidine alkaloid status of Styphnolobium and Cladrastis (Leguminosae)

Reports of quinolizidine alkaloids in Styphnolobium Schott and Cladrastis Raf. (Leguminosae) conflict with their position in recent molecular phylogenies because they are not members of a major clade of quinolizidine alkaloid-accumulating taxa. The alkaloid status of these two genera was therefore re-investigated using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Quinolizidine alkaloids could not be detected in extracts of leaves, flowers or seeds of S. japonicum (L.) Schott, nor in leaves of S. affine (Torrey & A. Gray) Walp., C. delavayi (Franch.) Prain, C. kentukea (Dum.-Cours.) Rudd or C. platycarpa Mak. In contrast, Calia secundiflora (Ortega) Yakovlev, also currently placed outside the major clade of quinolizidine alkaloid-producing genera in molecular phylogenies, was confirmed to accumulate a range of quinolizidine alkaloids.     

Phylogenetic and biosystematic relationships in four highly disjunct polyploid complexes in the subgenera Ceterach and Phyllitis in Asplenium (Aspleniaceae)

Phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences of two chloroplast regions, rbcL and trnL-F, demonstrate that the proposed genus Ceterach is a small clade within the large genus Asplenium, and sister to the Phyllitis clade. The Ceterach clade is characterised by irregular anastomosing veins and often densely scaled leaf blades. Its taxonomic status as a group nested within Asplenium is confirmed, and it is accepted here as a subgenus with seven species. The Ceterach clade comprises four lineages that correspond to disjunct polyploid complexes: the A. aureum clade forming a polyploid complex (4×, 6×, 8×) in Macaronesia, the A. ceterach clade forming a polyploid complex (2×, 4×, 6×) in the Mediterranean Basin, the A. paucivenosum clade (4×, 6×) in central Asia, and the A. dalhousiae clade (2×) with a disjunct distribution in the Himalaya, Yemen and Eritrea, and southwestern North America. Asplenium paucivenosum is sister to all other members of the Ceterach clade, whereas A. dalhousiae is sister to the A. aureum clade that includes tetraploid A. aureum, hexaploid A. lolegnamense, and octoploid A. parvifolium. Asplenium ceterach and its variations – including the hexaploid A. ceterach subsp. mediterraneum subsp. nov. first described below – form a monophyletic unit, sister to a clade consisting of A. aureum and A. dalhousiae. Asplenium cordatum from Africa and A. haugthonii from the isolated atlantic island of St. Helena are not members of the Ceterach clade, which suggests that leaf blades with dense indumenta have evolved at least twice within asplenioid ferns. The allotetraploid species A. hybridum has the chloroplast DNA from A. ceterach, and therefore the latter species is the maternal ancestor of the former. The other parent of this hybrid species is A. sagittatum that is nested within the sister clade of Ceterach, the Phyllitis clade comprising A. sagittatum and A. scolopendrium. The findings suggest that the current distribution of Ceterach is either the result of long-distance dispersal or represents fragmented relicts of a previously more widely distributed species.     

Toxicity of aldehyde products of lipid peroxidation to adult Schistosoma intercalatum in vitro

The host's immune response results in oxidative damage to parasite membranes. Known aldehyde breakdown products from lipid peroxidation have been investigated for their in vitro toxicity to Schistosoma intercalatum. Saturated and monounsaturated aldehydes were found to be relatively non-toxic, whilst dienal and hydroxyenal aldehydes had LD₅₀ values in the range of 10–20 μM. Conversion of the toxic aldehydes to their corresponding alcohols or glutathione conjugates reduced toxicity to S. intercalatum by one or two orders of magnitude. This suggests that parasite detoxification enzymes might be useful targets for chemotherapy and raises the possibility of combining chemo- and immunotherapy.     

The tropical legume Sesbania rostrata: Tissue culture, plant regeneration and infection with Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Rhizogenes strains

Conditions were examined for callus induction and in vitro morphogenesis of Sesbania rostrata. A protocol for organogenesis from different S. rostrata explants (cotyledons, hypocotyls, immature embryos) was established and used to regenerate plants. The cytokinin BAP was found to be essential for shoot formation at concentrations of 0.2–1.0 mg/l. SH medium, free of hormones or supplemented with 0.1 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), was found to stimulate root development of the regenerated plantlets. The susceptibility of S. rostrata to Agrobacterium mediated infection/transformation was tested using different wild type A. tumefaciens (C58 and B6S3) and A. rhizogenes (15834) strains. An extensive systemic infection of S. rostrata by the agrobacterial strains was observed, presumably occurring via spread of the bacteria in the vascular bundles.     

Millardia meltada, a new host for Acanthocheilonema viteae and a simple technique for separation of microfilariae from peripheral blood

, and 1992. Millardia meltada, a new host for Acanthocheilonema viteae and a simple technique for separation of microfilariae from peripheral blood. International Journal for Parasitology 22: 1165–1168. Millardia meltada were infected with Acanthocheilonema viteae and examined for their susceptibility. The morbidity of infected M. meltada was low compared with that of jirds. On day 47 post-infection (p.i.), 13 of 14 M. meltada developed microfilaremia. Male M. meltada then showed gradually increasing microfilaremia with a peak level of 7000 per 30 μl blood at week 20 p.i., which was much higher than that (3000) of male jirds. In contrast, microfilarial densities of female M. meltada were markedly low with a peak level of 200 during weeks 10–12 p.i. A simple centrifugation technique with Lympholyte-M was devised for microfilarial separation from the peripheral blood of infected M. meltada and yielded approximately 17 × 10⁵ viable microfilariae from 1 ml of blood. This method also makes it possible to collect microfilariae from the same individuals repeatedly. M. meltada, coupled with this microfilarial separation technique, serves as a useful animal model for microfilarial studies of A. viteae.     

Defense strategies of dominant plants under different grazing intensity in the typical temperate steppe of Nei Mongol,China

放牧是草原的主要利用方式, 但对牧草造成了一定的生物胁迫。面对生存压力, 牧草会通过调节初级与次级代谢过程启动防御机制。该研究以内蒙古温带典型草原优势种植物为研究对象, 通过测定其在5个放牧水平下不同营养器官中的次级代谢产物及木质素等含量, 探讨大针茅(Stipa grandis)和羊草(Leymus chinensis)的各营养器官在防御机制中的角色及其碳氮权衡策略。结果表明: 面对放牧胁迫, 大针茅和羊草会产生大量的单宁、总黄酮、酚类以及生物碱等次级代谢产物, 并以叶片为主要的合成及储存器官。中度放牧使羊草的化学防御机制得到较充分的诱导及表达。但二者地上部分木质素含量并无显著增加, 因此, 二者在避牧性机制上更倾向于化学防御而非机械防御。由于羊草有更高的氮利用效率, 这使得羊草可以通过碳氮两种代谢途径进行防御, 但大针茅在生长初期并不能将氮高效地分配到化学防御中。大针茅和羊草在生长初期面对轻度放牧胁迫, 较多的资源仍然用于初级代谢, 增加了植物耐牧性。因此, 轻度放牧有利于提高牧草的碳氮资源利用效率、提高生态系统生产力及稳定性。     

Chemical variation within and between individuals of the lichenized ascomycete Tephromela atra

HPLC-analysis was used to determine the concentrations of the lichen compounds alectoronic acid (depsidon), -collatolic acid (depsidon) and atranorin (depsid) in the lichenized ascomycete Tephromela atra (syn. Lecanon atra) (Hudson) Hafeliner from limestone walls on the Baltic island of Öland, Sweden. In 24 individuals of T. atra sampled on a stone wall, the pre-reproductive and reproductive tissue did not differ in the concentrations of alectoronic acid, collatolic acid and atranorin. The concentrations of the three lichen compounds were inter-correlated in the reproductive tissue, but not in the pre-reproductive tissue. Single individuals of T. atra ranged in area covered from 10.1 to 147.4 cm² (mean: 38.5 cm²; N=24); 38.6% of this area was pre-reproductive tissue. However, the concentrations of the three lichen compounds were correlated neither with the total area covered by the lichen nor with the percentage of pre-reproductive tissue. This suggests that the concentrations of the lichen compounds do not change with increasing size (age) of the lichen. Analysis of specimens of T. atra from eight localities revealed a significant variation in lichen compounds (range between localities: alectoronic acid 0.60–3.26 μg/mg lichen dry weight (DW); collatolic acid 2.14–11.59 μg/mg lichen DW; atranorin 0.58–4.16 μg/mg lichen DW). The level of grazing observed in the lichens differed significantly among localities. However, no correlations between the concentrations of the three lichen compounds and the grazing damage to the lichens were found.