小型哺乳类食果动物可能对蛇菰科葛菌种子散布的初次报道

初次报道了哺乳类食果动物可能对蛇菰科葛菌(Balanophora harlandii)的种子散布,葛菌具有酷似蘑菇且醒目显著的肉质佛焰状果序,食菌的啮齿类动物很可能由于对其进行取食而起到种子散布的作用,本文对此现象进行了初步探讨.     

鸟类对猪血木种子的散布及在其保护中的意义

观察了广东八甲地区鸟类对猪血木种子的散布过程,对散布效果及其在幼苗建立、种群恢复以及保护生物学中的意义进行了分析。结果表明,猪血木种子通过鸟类和重力散布,但以鸟类散布为主;猪血木种子萌发的关键是种子能否从浆果暴露出来;鸟类对猪血木种子散布的意义在于破碎果实,暴露种子。由于人类活动的干扰,散布区内许多土地已异质化,一些种子被散布到无法萌发的环境中,限制了鸟类散布的效果。由于鸟类散布在猪血木幼苗建立和分布区扩张方面具有重要意义,因此在对猪血木进行保护时,除保护生境外还必须注意对鸟类进行保护。     

胡杨种子散布的时空分布格局

以额济纳胡杨为研究对象,对种子雨的散布时间、强度、散布距离以及种子雨和空气湿度、风之间的关系进行了研究。胡杨种子雨可以分为初始期、高峰期和消退期3个阶段,大部分的种子集中在高峰期落下。种子的散布主要受湿度和风的影响。湿度对种子雨的强度起主要作用,在一天之中,种子在湿度较低的中午和下午集中散落。应用一元线性回归模型对种子雨强度和相对湿度进行分析后表明二者之间存在显著的负相关关系。对种子的散播距离进行研究后发现,大部分种子落在母树附近,少部分种子能够进行长距离传播。风对种子的传播的方向和距离起决定性的作用,不同方向上的种子传播距离和强度相差很大。在顺风方向上,种子的传播距离最远,所有的长距离传播现象几乎都发生在这一方向上;而在主风向的垂直方向和逆风方向上,种子的散布距离较小,很少有种子能够进行长距离传播。对风的观测表明中午后和下午初的风力较强,而此时种子雨强度又最大,有利风力条件和高种子雨强度出现的同步性可能是促进胡杨种子进行长距离传播最有效的生物控制机制。由于胡杨种子在自然条件下的存活时间非常短暂,所以研究中不同胡杨母树林间种子散播时间的差异可能是胡杨种群内部为适应不同洪水期所表现出的风险分摊机制所造成的。     

西双版纳热带季节雨林145个树种繁殖体特征

分析了西双版纳热带季节雨林20公顷动态监测样地中145个树种的繁殖体特征。结果表明：雨季散布的种类最多（71.03%）,在雾凉季及干热季散布的种类相对较少;果实类型以核果,蒴果,浆果居多,黑色、黄色、褐色果实最为常见;动物散布的种类最多（56.55%）,其次为机械散布,独立散布,风力散布;大种子树种（种子最大长度〉10mm）较占优势（53.10%）;树种单粒种子重量从2.3×10^-5～22.29g不等,但76.55%的种子的重量集中在0.01～10g之间;干热季散布的种子平均重量显著高于雨季和雾凉季;独立散布的种子重量最大,风力散布的种子重量最小,而机械弹射的种子重量和动物散布的种子重量之间差异不显著;树种的成年个体最大胸径与种子重量之间存在显著正相关。     

松嫩平原碱化草甸朝鲜碱茅种子散布机制的分析

采用顺序远离母株取样的方法,定量分析了松嫩平原碱化草甸朝鲜碱茅（Ｐｕｃｃｉｎｅｌｌｉａｃｈｉｎａｍ ｐｏｅｎｓｉｓ Ｏｈｗ ｉ）的种子散布机制。结果表明,在８个方向中仅西南方向表现为近母株散布距离,其它７个方向均表现为远母株散布距离的种子散布机制。经相关性分析,朝鲜碱茅向不同的方向散布的种子数量与种子散布时期顺风向的风速和风向频率呈正相关,反映了朝鲜碱茅是借助于风媒介实现了远母株距离扩展潜在生态位空间的种群对策。朝鲜碱茅向母株周围散布的种子呈连续分布格局的散布半径平均为１７５ ｃｍ 。     

濒危植物明党参种子散布和种子库动态研究

对伞形科濒危植物明党参（Changium smyrnioides)的种子生产、散布和种子库动态进行了研究。明党参平均每株产生完好种子132粒,86.36%来自顶生花序,不同生境中个体产生的种子千粒重有差异;其平均1.06m高的花葶在种子散布过程中易倒伏,使种子远离母株;种子散布格局为聚集型;种子库密度随时间逐渐下降。明党参种子产量和不同时期种子库密度均低于同科非濒危植物峨参（Anthriscus sylvestris),2个种的种子库均为非持续型;明党参具有低种子数、大粒种子、种子散布远离母株以减少种内竞争的K对策,在受到人类大量采挖和生境干扰后种群不容易迅速恢复;而峨参采取高种子数、小粒种子、种子近母株密集分布和产生无性系的r对策,种群受干扰后易恢复。     

内蒙古退化草原狼毒种子的种群分布格局与散布机制

狼毒 (Stellera chamaejasme)为瑞香科多年生草本植物 ,是主要的草地有毒植物种类之一。采用邻接格子样方法和分布指数 (DI)以及平均拥挤度 (m* )指标 ,研究了内蒙古西辽河平原北部典型草原区内的狼毒 (Stellera chamaejasme)种子种群分布格局强度、类型与规模 ;根据顺序远离母株的取样调查 ,定量地分析了狼毒种子在 8个方向上的散布格局。结果表明 ,狼毒种子在落种期之前为随机分布 ,而在落种期结束后为聚集分布 ,种子种群斑块大小平均为 0 .0 8m2 。狼毒种子在 8个方向上的散布表现为不同的散布格局模式。在不同方向随着累积面积增加狼毒种子散布数量变化符合 L ogistic曲线增长。各方向种子散布数量与顺风风向频率显著正相关。狼毒种群具有“近母株散布”的种子散布机制 ,基本散布半径为 0～ 5 0 cm。狼毒种群通过种子散布扩展其分布空间的能力是很有限的     

松嫩平原碱化草甸野大麦的种子散布格局

根据顺序远离母株的取样调查,定量地分析了松嫩平原碱化草甸野大麦（Ｈｏｒｄｅｕｍ ｂｒｅ－ｖｉｓｕｂｕｌａｔｕｍ （Ｔｒｉｎ．） Ｌｉｎｋ）在６ 个方向上的种子散布格局。结果表明,在风的作用下,野大麦向东北方向散布的种子数量最多,比数量最少的西南方向多４ 倍。种子散布半径平均约１３０ｃｍ 。不同方向单位面积的种子散布格局均较好地适合于Ｗｅｉｂｕｌｌ分布,并反映出在松嫩平原自然条件下,野大麦具有远离母株扩大其潜在生态位空间的种子散布机制。不同方向野大麦顺序远离母株的种子散布数量均随着累积面积的增加呈Ｌｏｇｉｓｔｉｃ曲线形式增长,其增长速率以种子散布数量多、距离远的东和东北方向相对较小     

流动沙丘先锋灌木差巴嘎蒿的种子散布格局

通过对科尔沁沙地流动沙丘上先锋植物差巴嘎蒿的种子散布格局及机理的实验研究,主要得出以下结论:差巴嘎蒿母株向不同方向散布的种子,其数量与距离存在明显的差异.母株向西南方向散布的种子数量最多,种子累积数量高达4 590±1 260,比其它各方向多29%至12倍.向北方向散布的种子数量最少,距离最短,种子累积数量为344±44,距离仅在100 cm的范围内.不同方向差巴嘎蒿种子散布的密度均随着散布距离的增加而呈对数关系减小,表现出显著的相关性.不同方向差巴嘎蒿远离母株的种子散布密度与累积面积之间存在显著的相关性,其间关系可用对数曲线来描述.结果显示,差巴嘎蒿向不同方向散布的种子密度均随着累积面积的增加而增加.     

草本植物群落种子雨的初步研究

植物在群落内正常生长发育的标志是能够完成从种子发芽到种子散布这一完整的生活周期。植物种子的散布,无论是通过风、动物、果实开裂弹力或者其它形式落到地面,均如同大气降雨一样,具有随机性和量的问题。Harper(1977)根据多年来对植物种群动态、特别是有关种子散布的深入研究,提出了种子雨(seedrain)这一概念。不过,Harper的工作主要是在种群水平上进行的。本项研究是在群落水平上进行的。迄今在我国,尚未见有关草本植物群落种子雨的论著。笔者以草原典型群落类型为对象,探讨了草本植物群落种子雨的研     

When is dispersal for dispersal? Unifying marine and terrestrial perspectives

Recent syntheses on the evolutionary causes of dispersal have focused on dispersal as a direct adaptation, but many traits that influence dispersal have other functions, raising the question: when is dispersal ‘for’ dispersal? We review and critically evaluate the ecological causes of selection on traits that give rise to dispersal in marine and terrestrial organisms. In the sea, passive dispersal is relatively easy and specific morphological, behavioural, and physiological adaptations for dispersal are rare. Instead, there may often be selection to limit dispersal. On land, dispersal is relatively difficult without specific adaptations, which are relatively common. Although selection for dispersal is expected in both systems and traits leading to dispersal are often linked to fitness, systems may differ in the extent to which dispersal in nature arises from direct selection for dispersal or as a by‐product of selection on traits with other functions. Our analysis highlights incompleteness of theories that assume a simple and direct relationship between dispersal and fitness, not just insofar as they ignore a vast array of taxa in the marine realm, but also because they may be missing critically important effects of traits influencing dispersal in all realms.     

Evolution of local adaptations in dispersal strategies

The optimal probability and distance of dispersal largely depend on the risk to end up in unsuitable habitat. This risk is highest close to the habitat's edge and consequently, optimal dispersal probability and distance should decline towards the habitat's border. This selection should lead to the emergence of spatial gradients in dispersal strategies. However, gene flow caused by dispersal itself is counteracting local adaptation. Using an individual based model we investigate the evolution of local adaptations of dispersal probability and distance within a single, circular, habitat patch. We compare evolved dispersal probabilities and distances for six different dispersal kernels (two negative exponential kernels, two skewed kernels, nearest neighbour dispersal and global dispersal) in patches of different size. For all kernels a positive correlation between patch size and dispersal probability emerges. However, a minimum patch size is necessary to allow for local adaptation of dispersal strategies within patches. Beyond this minimum patch area the difference in mean dispersal distance between center and edge increases linearly with patch radius, but the intensity of local adaptation depends on the dispersal kernel. Except for global and nearest neighbour dispersal, the evolved spatial pattern are qualitatively similar for both, mean dispersal probability and distance. We conclude, that inspite of the gene-flow originating from dispersal local adaptation of dispersal strategies is possible if a habitat is of sufficient size. This presumably holds for any realistic type of dispersal kernel.     

The evolution of dispersal distance in spatially-structured populations

Most evolutionary models of dispersal have concentrated on dispersal rate, with emigration being either global or restricted to nearest neighbours. Yet most organisms fall into an intermediate region where most dispersal is local but there is a wide range of dispersal distances. We use an individual-based model with 2500 patches each with identical local dynamics and show that the dispersal distance is under selection pressure. The dispersal distance that evolves is critically dependent on the ecological dynamics. When the cost of dispersal increases linearly with distance, selection is for short-distance dispersal under stable and damped local dynamics but longer distance dispersal is favoured as local dynamics become more complex. For the cases of stable, damped and periodic patch dynamics global patch synchrony occurs even with very short-distance dispersal. Increasing the scale of dispersal for chaotic local dynamics increases the scale of synchrony but global synchrony does not neccesarily occur. We discuss these results in the light of other possible causes of dispersal and argue for the importance of incorporating non-equilibrium population dynamics into evolutionary models of dispersal distance.     

Joint evolution of differential seed dispersal and self‐fertilization

Differential seed dispersal, in which selfed and outcrossed seeds possess different dispersal propensities, represents a potentially important individual‐level association. A variety of traits can mediate differential seed dispersal, including inflorescence and seed size variation. However, how natural selection shapes such associations is poorly known. Here, we developed theoretical models for the evolution of mating system and differential seed dispersal in metapopulations, incorporating heterogeneous pollination, dispersal cost, cost of outcrossing and environment‐dependent inbreeding depression. We considered three models. In the ‘fixed dispersal model’, only selfing rate is allowed to evolve. In the ‘fixed selfing model’, in which selfing is fixed but differential seed dispersal can evolve, we showed that natural selection favours a higher, equal or lower dispersal rate for selfed seeds to that for outcrossed seeds. However, in the ‘joint evolution model’, in which selfing and dispersal can evolve together, evolution necessarily leads to higher or equal dispersal rate for selfed seeds compared to that for outcrossed. Further comparison revealed that outcrossed seed dispersal is selected against by the evolution of mixed mating or selfing, whereas the evolution of selfed seed dispersal undergoes independent processes. We discuss the adaptive significance and constraints for mating system/dispersal association.     

Genetics of dispersal

Dispersal is a process of central importance for the ecological and evolutionary dynamics of populations and communities, because of its diverse consequences for gene flow and demography. It is subject to evolutionary change, which begs the question, what is the genetic basis of this potentially complex trait? To address this question, we (i) review the empirical literature on the genetic basis of dispersal, (ii) explore how theoretical investigations of the evolution of dispersal have represented the genetics of dispersal, and (iii) discuss how the genetic basis of dispersal influences theoretical predictions of the evolution of dispersal and potential consequences. Dispersal has a detectable genetic basis in many organisms, from bacteria to plants and animals. Generally, there is evidence for significant genetic variation for dispersal or dispersal‐related phenotypes or evidence for the micro‐evolution of dispersal in natural populations. Dispersal is typically the outcome of several interacting traits, and this complexity is reflected in its genetic architecture: while some genes of moderate to large effect can influence certain aspects of dispersal, dispersal traits are typically polygenic. Correlations among dispersal traits as well as between dispersal traits and other traits under selection are common, and the genetic basis of dispersal can be highly environment‐dependent. By contrast, models have historically considered a highly simplified genetic architecture of dispersal. It is only recently that models have started to consider multiple loci influencing dispersal, as well as non‐additive effects such as dominance and epistasis, showing that the genetic basis of dispersal can influence evolutionary rates and outcomes, especially under non‐equilibrium conditions. For example, the number of loci controlling dispersal can influence projected rates of dispersal evolution during range shifts and corresponding demographic impacts. Incorporating more realism in the genetic architecture of dispersal is thus necessary to enable models to move beyond the purely theoretical towards making more useful predictions of evolutionary and ecological dynamics under current and future environmental conditions. To inform these advances, empirical studies need to answer outstanding questions concerning whether specific genes underlie dispersal variation, the genetic architecture of context‐dependent dispersal phenotypes and behaviours, and correlations among dispersal and other traits.     

Recruitment trade-offs and the evolution of dispersal mechanisms in plants

In this study we place seed size vs. seed number trade-offs in the context of plant dispersal ability. The objective was to suggest explanations for the evolution of different seed dispersal mechanisms, in particular fleshy fruits, wind dispersal and the maintenance of unassisted dispersal. We suggest that selection for improved dispersal may act either by increasing the intercept of a dispersal curve (log seed number vs. distance) or by flattening the slope of the curve. 'Improved dispersal' is defined as a marginal increase in the number of recruits sited at some (arbitrary) distance away from the parent plant. Increasing the intercept of the dispersal curve, i.e. producing more seeds, is associated with a reduction in seed size, which in turn affects the recruitment ability, provided that this ability is related to seed size. If recruitment is related to seed size there will be a recruitment cost of evolving increased seed production. On the other hand, a flattening of the slope by evolving dispersal attributes is likely to be associated with a fecundity cost. An exception is wind dispersal where smaller (and hence more numerous) seeds may lead to more efficient dispersal. We derive two main predictions: If recruitment is strongly related to seed size, selection for improved dispersal acts on the slope of the dispersal curve, i.e. by favouring evolution of dispersal attributes on seeds or fruits. If, on the other hand, recruitment is only weakly related to seed size (or not related, or negatively related), selection for improved dispersal favours increased seed production. Despite its simplicity, the model suggests explanations for (i) why so many plant species lack special seed dispersal attributes, (ii) differences in dispersal spectra among plant communities, and (iii) adaptive radiation in seed size and dispersal attributes during angiosperm evolution. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Sex-specific genetic differentiation and coalescence times: estimating sex-biased dispersal rates

I derive the equilibrium values of sex-specific FST parameters, in an island model for a dioecious species with sex-biased dispersal and binomial distribution of family size before dispersal (as assumed in a Wright-Fisher population). I show that FST may take different values among males and among females whenever dispersal is a trait conditioned on gender. This has not always been recognized, because some models assumed that genes are sampled before dispersal. In particular, the ratios of sex-specific FST parameters evaluated after dispersal over FST evaluated before dispersal are simple functions of sex-specific dispersal rates. Therefore, a simple moment-based estimator of sex-specific dispersal rate is proposed. This method is based on the comparison of FST estimated before and after dispersal and assumes equilibrium between migration and drift. I evaluate this method through stochastic simulations for a range of sex-specific dispersal rates and sampling effort (sample size, number of loci scored).     

Predictors of long-distance dispersal in the Siberian flying squirrel

During dispersal the distances moved differ between individuals. The evolutionary causes of dispersal rate are much studied, for example, it is observed that dispersal is often a condition- and phenotype-dependent strategy. However, more empirical information is needed on factors affecting the dispersal distance. We study factors behind dispersal distance in the juvenile Siberian flying squirrel. The longer dispersing individuals abandoned natal site earlier in the season and were larger, perhaps being born earlier, than shorter dispersing individuals. These patterns did not hold between same-sex siblings, indicating that the early long-distance dispersal was more a between than a within-litter related phenomenon. Our results indicate differences between litters that are related to dispersal strategies of individuals. In flying squirrels, long-distance dispersal is not merely a secondary effect of short-distance dispersal. Instead, the distribution of dispersal distance is affected by factors enhancing long-distance dispersal.     

Fine scale relationships between sex, life history, and dispersal of masu salmon

Identifying the patterns and processes driving dispersal is critical for understanding population structure and dynamics. In many organisms, sex-biased dispersal is related to the type of mating system. Considerably, less is known about the influence of life-history variability on dispersal. Here we investigated patterns of dispersal in masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) to evaluate influences of sex and life history on dispersal. As expected, assignment tests and isolation by distance analysis revealed that dispersal of marine-migratory masu salmon was male-biased. However, dispersal of resident and migratory males did not follow our expectation and marine-migratory individuals dispersed more than residents. This may be because direct competition between marine-migratory and resident males is weak or that the cost of dispersal is smaller for marine-migratory individuals. This study revealed that both sex and migratory life-history influence patterns of dispersal at a local scale in masu salmon.     

Intra- and interspecific density-dependent dispersal in an aquatic prey-predator system

1. Dispersal intensity is a key process for the persistence of prey-predator metacommunities. Consequently, knowledge of the ecological mechanisms of dispersal is fundamental to understanding the dynamics of these communities. Dispersal is often considered to occur at a constant per capita rate; however, some experiments demonstrated that dispersal may be a function of local species density. 2. Here we use aquatic experimental microcosms under controlled conditions to explore intra- and interspecific density-dependent dispersal in two protists, a prey Tetrahymena pyriformis and its predator Dileptus sp. 3. We observed intraspecific density-dependent dispersal for the prey and interspecific density-dependent dispersal for both the prey and the predator. Decreased prey density lead to an increase in predator dispersal, while prey dispersal increased with predator density. 4. Additional experiments suggest that the prey is able to detect its predator through chemical cues and to modify its dispersal behaviour accordingly. 5. Density-dependent dispersal suggests that regional processes depend on local community dynamics. We discuss the potential consequences of density-dependent dispersal on metacommunity dynamics and stability.