Trace fossils of the Jurassic,blue Lias,Lyme Regis,Southern England

The Lower Jurassic, Blue Lias Formation at Lyme Regis, Dorset, England is rhythmically bedded with symmetrical rhythms consisting of laminated black shale followed by dark then pale marls (sometimes cemented into pale limestones) and back to laminated black shale. Its trace fossil fauna includes nine ichno‐genera and represents a shallow shelf paleoenviron‐ment. The ichnofauna occurs in three assemblages named after consistently occurring ichnogenera. A Chondrites assemblage (diversity = 1 ichnogenus) and a Chondrites‐Arenicolites assemblage (diversity = 2–3 ichnogenera) are typical of dark marls but may penetrate tops of laminated black shales. A thalassi‐noides‐Chondrites‐Arenicolites assemblage (diversity up to 7 ichnogenera) is typical of pale marls or limestones. Blue Lias limestones are diagenetic: dark laminated limestones and pale bioturbated limestones are cemented equivalents of laminated black shales and pale marls, respectively. However, pale burrow fills in darker sediments and vice versa confirm the rhythms are primary. Rhythms represent redox cycles, fluctuating from anoxic laminated black shales lacking mac‐robenthos or infauna (bioturbation index = 0) to oxic, bioturbated, pale marls or limestones with large mac‐robenthos such as Gryphaea or Plagiostoma and diverse infauna (bioturbation index = 5).     

Hypostomus sertanejo (Siluriformes: Loricariidae), new armoured catfish species from north‐eastern Brazil

A re‐evaluation of the armoured catfish species of Hypostomus in the Rio Jaguaribe, north‐eastern Brazil, was prompted by the discovery of specimens with pale spots on a dark background collected from that basin c. 1936 and deposited at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Recent field collections in the Rio Jarguaribe basin confirmed the presence of the pale‐spotted specimens and its distinctiveness as a new species. Hypostomus sertanejo n. sp. is diagnosed from other species of Hypostomus by having fins and dermal‐plated regions of head and body with pale spots or vermiculations on darker background, teeth slender, asymmetrically bicuspid and numerous (34–75) on dentary and premaxilla, depressed dorsal‐fin spine not reaching adipose spine, unbranched pectoral‐fin spine longer than unbranched pelvic‐fin ray, seven branched dorsal‐fin rays and one (rarely two) predorsal plate(s) bordering supraoccipital. Ancistrus salgadae Fowler 1941 is hypothesized to be a junior synonym of Hypostomus carvalhoi (Miranda‐Ribeiro, 1937), a dark‐spotted Hypostomus described from the Rio Granjeiro, a tributary to the upper Rio Salgado.     

Comparative pollination biology in two sympatric varieties of Cypripedium macranthos (Orchidaceae) on Rebun Island,Hokkaido, Japan

Cypripedium macranthos sensu lato typically has purple‐pink flowers with no nectar and harvestable pollen. On Rebun Island, Hokkaido, Japan, purple‐pink‐flowered C. macranthos var. macranthos individuals rarely grow among numerous pale‐cream‐flowered C. macranthos var. rebunense plants. In both varieties, flower size is similar, their flowering periods completely overlap, and they share the same pollinator (Bombus pseudobaicalensis). However, in only one of 12 years from 2001 to 2012 did var. macranthos attain an annual fruit‐set ratio (an estimate of pollination success) higher than that of sympatric var. rebunense plants. These findings strongly suggest that in C. macranthos on Rebun Island, flower color results in the differential pollination success, because the pollinator prefers pale‐cream Cypripedium flowers and/or avoids purple‐pink ones, thereby producing pollinator‐mediated selection favoring pale‐cream flowers.     

Combining next‐generation sequencing and progeny testing for rapid identification of induced recessive and dominant mutations in maize M2 individuals

Molecular identification of mutant alleles responsible for certain phenotypic alterations is a central goal of genetic analyses. In this study we describe a rapid procedure suitable for the identification of induced recessive and dominant mutations applied to two Zea mays mutants expressing a dwarf and a pale green phenotype, respectively, which were obtained through pollen ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenesis. First, without prior backcrossing, induced mutations (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) segregating in a (M₂) family derived from a heterozygous (M₁) parent were identified using whole‐genome shotgun (WGS) sequencing of a small number of (M₂) individuals with mutant and wild‐type phenotypes. Second, the state of zygosity of the mutation causing the phenotype was determined for each sequenced individual by phenotypic segregation analysis of the self‐pollinated (M₃) offspring. Finally, we filtered for segregating EMS‐induced SNPs whose state of zygosity matched the determined state of zygosity of the mutant locus in each sequenced (M₂) individuals. Through this procedure, combining sequencing of individuals and Mendelian inheritance, three and four SNPs in linkage passed our zygosity filter for the homozygous dwarf and heterozygous pale green mutation, respectively. The dwarf mutation was found to be allelic to the an1 locus and caused by an insertion in the largest exon of the AN1 gene. The pale green mutation affected the nuclear W2 gene and was caused by a non‐synonymous amino acid exchange in encoded chloroplast DNA polymerase with a predicted deleterious effect. This coincided with lower cpDNA levels in pale green plants.     

Adaptive change in protective coloration in adult striated shieldbugs Graphosoma lineatum (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae): test of detectability of two colour forms by avian predators

1. Protective coloration in insects may be aposematic or cryptic, and some species change defensive strategy between instars. In Sweden, the adult striated shieldbugs Graphosoma lineatum (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) undergo a seasonal colour change from pale brown and black striation in the pre‐hibernating adults, to red and black striation in the same post‐hibernating individuals. To the human eye the pre‐hibernating adults appear cryptic against the withered late summer vegetation, whereas the red and black post‐hibernating adults appear aposematic. This suggests a possibility of a functional colour change. However, what is cryptic to the human eye is not necessarily cryptic to a potential predator. 2. Therefore we tested the effect of coloration in adult G. lineatum on their detectability for avian predators. Great tits (Parus major) were trained to eat sunflower seeds hidden inside the emptied exoskeletons of pale or red G. lineatum. Then the detection time for both colour forms was measured in a dry vegetation environment. 3. The birds required a longer time to find the pale form of G. lineatum than the red one. The pale form appears more cryptic on withered late summer vegetation than the red form, not only to the human eye but also to avian predators. The result supports the idea that the adult individuals of G. lineatum undergo a functional change from a cryptic protective coloration to an aposematic one.     

Eriocaulon vandaanamense sp. nov. (Eriocaulaceae) from Kerala,India

Eriocaulon vandaanamense (Eriocaulaceae), a new species from a marshy coastal area in the Alappuzha District, Kerala, India, is described and illustrated. The new species is similar to E. truncatum and resembles it in having vertically elongated seed coat cells, but differs mainly in having pale black hoary floral bracts, 3‐lobed hoary male sepals, linear‐falcate, non‐conduplicate hoary female sepals, and small, smooth, pale brown seeds without seed coat appendages.     

Hanging in the treetops: an in situ experiment in ancient hemlock assessing outbreak defoliator performance among crown levels

1. Past studies have shown that both egg lay and larval feeding of a generalist defoliator, pale‐winged gray (Iridopsis ephyraria Walker) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), are concentrated in the mid‐lower crown of eastern hemlock [Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.]. 2. Using tree‐climbing techniques, we carried out in situ bioassays in large hemlock trees (～25 m) to determine whether the observed foraging preferences are adaptive and how they reflect associated intra‐tree variations in microhabitat quality associated with temperature and foliage nutritional quality. 3. In 1 of 2 years, larval survival was significantly higher in the shaded lower versus sunlit upper crown; however, in both years, groups that fed in the sunlit upper crown branches had larger male and female moths and more female‐biased sex ratios. 4. Differences in pale‐winged gray performance among crown levels were somewhat supported by trends in foliage nutritional chemistry but not well‐correlated with variation in temperature. 5. The present study is one of only a few to carry out bioassays on large mature trees and results reinforce the idea that foraging patterns of herbivores are likely to reflect trade‐offs among several factors that vary between sunlit and shaded branches within forest canopies.     

A new species of Leopoldia (Asparagaceae Scilloideae formerly Hyacinthaceae) from Iran

Leopoldia tabriziana Jafari (Hyacinthaceae) from northwest of Iran (East Azarbaijan province) is described here and illustrated by a line‐drawing. It is similar to L. comosa Parl . but differs in having violet (not cream) pedicels in the fresh fertile flowers, oblong‐campanulate (not oblong‐urceolate) fertile flowers, triangular‐obovate (not globose‐obovate) sterile flowers, dark violet (not beige) fertile flowers and dark violet (not pale violet) sterile flowers with much shorter pedicels. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Food habits of the pale fox (Vulpes pallida) in Niger

The pale fox (Vulpes pallida) is a small, little known African carnivore that is patchily distributed throughout the Sahel. We studied the food habits of pale foxes in the Termit and Tin Toumma National Nature Reserve in south‐eastern Niger by examining the frequency of occurrence and proportions of prey remains in scats (n = 398). Arthropods, primarily Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Scorpiones, were present in 91.8% of scats. Mammalian remains, primarily Gerbillus spp., were found in 5.6% of scats. Avian, squamate and plant material were rarely present. There was little evidence of seasonal variation in the frequency of occurrence or proportions of prey in the diet, confirming that pale foxes are primarily insectivorous.     

Immunolocalization of keratin‐associated beta‐proteins (beta‐keratins) in the regenerating lizard epidermis indicates a new process for the differentiation of the epidermis in lepidosaurians

The process of keratinocyte differentiation was analyzed in the regenerating epidermis of the lizard Anolis carolinensis, where the genes coding for beta‐proteins (beta‐keratins) are known. The regenerating epidermis forms all epidermal layers found in normal scales (Oberhäutchen‐, beta‐, mesos‐, and alpha‐layer). Three specific proteins representing the larger families of beta‐proteins, glycine‐rich (HgG5, 28% glycine, 3.6% cysteine), glycine‐cysteine medium‐rich (HgGC10, 13% glycine, 14.5% cysteine), and glycine‐cysteine rich (HgGC3, 30.4% glycine, 8.7% cysteine) have been immunolocalized at the ultrastructural level. HgG5 is only present in differentiating beta‐cells, a weak or no labeling is observed in Oberhäutchen and is absent in alpha‐cells. The protein is located in the pale corneous material forming the compact beta‐layer but is absent in mature Oberhäutchen cells. HgGC10 is present among beta‐packets in Oberhäutchen and beta‐cells but disappears in more compact and electron‐pale corneous material. The labeling disappears in mesos‐cells and is present with variable intensity in alpha‐cells, whereas lacunar and clear‐cells are low labeled to unlabeled. HgGC3 is sparse or absent in beta‐cells but is lightly present in the darker corneous material of differentiating and mature alpha‐cells, lacunar‐cells, and clear‐cells. The study suggests that while glycine‐rich proteins (electron‐pale) are specifically used for building the resistant and hydrophobic beta‐layer, cysteine–glycine rich proteins (electron‐denser) are used to form the pliable corneous material present in the Oberhäutchen and alpha‐cells. The differential accumulation of beta‐proteins on the alpha‐keratin cytoskeleton scaffold and not the alternance of beta‐ with alpha‐keratins allow the differentiation of different epidermal layers. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Genetic divergence between sympatric Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus morphs in Gander Lake,Newfoundland: roles of migration,mutation and unequal effective population sizes

A suite of 10 microsatellite loci was used to examine genetic divergence between two sympatric morphs of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (‘dark’ and ‘pale’) inhabiting Gander Lake, Newfoundland. Results can be summarized as follows: (1) the morphs are strongly reproductively isolated – gene flow–migration estimates were consistently low in long and short‐term evolutionary timescales of analysis; (2) intermorph divergence based on allele size (R_ST) was significantly larger than those based on allele state (θ) implying a cumulative effect of stepwise‐like mutations; (3) historical (coalescent) and current (linkage disequilibrium) point estimates of effective population size (N_e) were consistently higher for dark than for pale S. alpinus. The first and second findings lend support to the hypothesis that divergence between forms may have preceded the last glacial period (ending c. 12 000 years bp ). The third finding argues for significant differences in habitat quantity and quality between morphs, which were emphasized in a previous study. Overall, these analyses underscore the importance of genetic assessment and monitoring in the conservation of fish diversity, with emphasis on ‘rare’ or under‐represented forms among temperate species pairs.     

A chalcone isomerase‐like protein enhances flavonoid production and flower pigmentation

Flavonoids are major pigments in plants, and their biosynthetic pathway is one of the best‐studied metabolic pathways. Here we have identified three mutations within a gene that result in pale‐colored flowers in the Japanese morning glory (Ipomoea nil). As the mutations lead to a reduction of the colorless flavonoid compound flavonol as well as of anthocyanins in the flower petal, the identified gene was designated enhancer of flavonoid production (EFP). EFP encodes a chalcone isomerase (CHI)‐related protein classified as a type IV CHI protein. CHI is the second committed enzyme of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway, but type IV CHI proteins are thought to lack CHI enzymatic activity, and their functions remain unknown. The spatio‐temporal expression of EFP and structural genes encoding enzymes that produce flavonoids is very similar. Expression of both EFP and the structural genes is coordinately promoted by genes encoding R2R3‐MYB and WD40 family proteins. The EFP gene is widely distributed in land plants, and RNAi knockdown mutants of the EFP homologs in petunia (Petunia hybrida) and torenia (Torenia hybrida) had pale‐colored flowers and low amounts of anthocyanins. The flavonol and flavone contents in the knockdown petunia and torenia flowers, respectively, were also significantly decreased, suggesting that the EFP protein contributes in early step(s) of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway to ensure production of flavonoid compounds. From these results, we conclude that EFP is an enhancer of flavonoid production and flower pigmentation, and its function is conserved among diverse land plant species.     

Attraction of garden chafer, Phyllopertha horticola, to floral Japanese beetle lure

Field experiments using funnel traps were performed on a golf course to investigate the attractiveness of a floral Japanese beetle lure for adults of the garden chafer, Phyllopertha horticola, a common European turf pest. Traps baited with 10 mg of the floral lure consisting of phenylethyl propionate + eugenol + geraniol (3 : 7 : 3) captured more adult garden chafers of both sexes than non‐baited control traps. In contrast, 1,3‐dimethyl‐2,4‐(1H, 3H)‐quinazolinedione, the sex pheromone of the closely related pale‐brown chafer P. diversa, neither influenced alone nor in combination with the floral lure the behaviour of adult garden chafers. The results suggest that the floral Japanese beetle lure might be used for monitoring or control of P. horticola.     

Regulation of eye and jaw colouration in three‐spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus

Fish can change their skin and eye colour for background matching and signalling. Males of Gasterosteus aculeatus develop ornamental blue eyes and a red jaw during the reproductive season, colours that are further enhanced during courtship. Here, the effects of different hormones on physiological colour changes in the eyes and jaws of male and female G. aculeatus were investigated in vitro. In an in vivo experiment, G. aculeatus were injected with a receptor blocker of a pivotal hormone (noradrenaline) that controls colour change. In males, noradrenaline had aggregating effects on melanophore and erythrophore pigments resulting in blue eyes and a pale jaw, whereas melanocyte‐concentrating hormone (MCH) and melatonin resulted in a pale jaw only. When noradrenalin was combined with melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) or prolactin, the jaw became red, while the eyes remained blue. In vivo injection of yohimbine, an alpha‐2 adrenoreceptor blocker, resulted in dispersion of melanophore pigment in the eyes and inhibited the blue colouration. Altogether, the data suggest that noradrenalin has a pivotal role in the short‐term enhancement of the ornamental colouration of male G. aculeatus, potentially together with MSH or prolactin. This study also found a sex difference in the response to MCH, prolactin and melatonin, which may result from different appearance strategies in males, versus the more cryptic females.     

Myoxanthus oliviae sp. nov. (Pleurothallidinae,Orchidaceae) from Peru

A new species of the orchid genus Myoxanthus, M. oliviae, is described based on Peruvian material. The novelty resembles M. serripetalus from which it differs by the 7–8‐veined lateral sepals (versus 6‐ or 9‐veined), the petals contracted below the apex and expanded again into a sagittate apex (versus apex caudate) and entire lip middle lobe (versus fimbriate). The flowers of M. oliviae are pale brownish‐purple, internally intensively suffused with yellow, dark‐purple spotted. The new species grows among rocks at the elevation of 2700–3100 m a.s.l. A key to Peruvian Myoxanthus representatives is provided.     

Immune defence,a possible nonvisual selective factor behind the industrial melanism of moths (Lepidoptera)

It is generally believed that industrial melanism in Lepidoptera is mainly caused by differential predation by birds. In polluted areas, melanic individuals are favoured by natural selection because they are better camouflaged than pale moths on lichen‐free and sooty tree trunks. In this article, we show that, in the black arches moth (Lymantria monacha), melanic morphs have a stronger encapsulation response than pale morphs against nylon monofilament implants. This indicates that the melanic and pale morphs differ in the strength of their immune defence. The same chemical precursors and their end product, melanin pigment, are involved in the encapsulation response and in the external coloration. Thus, it seems that there may be two possible, not mutually exclusive, explanations for the frequency changes observed in the industrial melanism of moths. The dominant gene causes an increase in the amount of melanin pigment and its precursors. This increase causes two changes: an intensified immune defence as a form of improved encapsulation ability of foreign objects, and the well‐known protective dark coloration (a case of relational pleiotropy). It seems possible that industrial melanism is a by‐product of selection on the strength of immunity. In the field, these pleiotropic aspects are exceedingly difficult to distinguish from each other, and the factors may even be compensatory. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 99 , 831–838.     

Cytidinediphosphate‐diacylglycerol synthase 5 is required for phospholipid homeostasis and is negatively involved in hyperosmotic stress tolerance

Cytidinediphosphate diacylglycerol synthase (CDS) uses phosphatidic acid (PA) and cytidinetriphosphate to produce cytidinediphosphate‐diacylglycerol, an intermediate for phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) synthesis. This study shows that CDS5, one of the five CDSs of the Oryza sativa (rice) genome, has multifaceted effects on plant growth and stress responses. The loss of CDS5 resulted in a decrease in PG and PI levels, defective thylakoid membranes, pale leaves in seedlings and growth retardation. In addition, the loss of CDS5 led to an elevated PA level and enhanced hyperosmotic tolerance. The inhibition of phospholipase D (PLD)‐derived PA formation in cds5 restored the hyperosmotic stress tolerance of the mutant phenotype to that of the wild type, suggesting that CDS5 functions as a suppressor in PLD‐derived PA signaling and negatively affects hyperosmotic stress tolerance.