Comparative cytogenetics in Apareiodon affinis (Pisces, Characiformes) and considerations regarding diversification of the group

Comparative cytogenetic studies in Apareiodon affinis (Pisces, Characiformes) from two hydrographic Brazilian basins showed significant divergences related to the general karyotype structure, C‐banding and nucleolar organizer region (NOR) bearing chromosomes. In the upper Paraná basin population, distinct diploid numbers were observed among sexes, the females showing 2n = 55 and the males 2n = 54 chromosomes, characterizing a multiple sex chromosome system of the ZZ/ZW₁W₂ type. A diploid number equal to 54 chromosomes was found for the Cuiabá river population, without a sex chromosome heteromorphism. However, the occurrence of acrocentric chromosomes represents an unique character for this population. These karyotypic differences indicate that the analyzed populations must represent distinct Apareiodon species. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Chromosomal rearrangements and karyotype evolution in carnivores revealed by chromosome painting

Chromosomal evolution in carnivores has been revisited extensively using cross-species chromosome painting. Painting probes derived from flow-sorted chromosomes of the domestic dog, which has one of the most rearranged karyotypes in mammals and the highest dipoid number (2n=78) in carnivores, are a powerful tool in detecting both evolutionary intra- and inter-chromosomal rearrangements. However, only a few comparative maps have been established between dog and other non-Canidae species. Here, we extended cross-species painting with dog probes to seven more species representing six carnivore families: Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), the stone marten (Martes foina), the small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), the Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphrodites), Javan mongoose (Hepestes javanicas), the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The numbers and positions of intra-chromosomal rearrangements were found to differ among these carnivore species. A comparative map between human and stone marten, and a map among the Yangtze finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis), stone marten and human were also established to facilitate outgroup comparison and to integrate comparative maps between stone marten and other carnivores with such maps between human and other species. These comparative maps give further insight into genome evolution and karyotype phylogenetic relationships among carnivores, and will facilitate the transfer of gene mapping data from human, domestic dog and cat to other species.     

鹿科麂属动物基因组演化研究进展

鹿科麂属(Muntiacus, Cervidae)在近两三百万年内经历了快速物种辐射, 但其物种间核型差异巨大. 5个现生种核型数据显示, 该类群染色体数目范围从小麂(Muntiacus reevesi)的46条到赤麂(M. muntjak vaginalis)的6条. 该类群的基因组在较短时间内发生了快速演化, 使其成为进化生物学研究的理想材料. 40多年来, 技术的革新使该领域的研究不断深入, 染色体重排的类型、推动重排的分子机制及物种间的核型演化历程逐渐被阐释. 而且, 研究中发现, 雄性黑麂(M. crinifrons)1p+4染色体的演化途径与哺乳动物Y染色体的演化历程相似, 可成为哺乳动物性染色体演化研究的珍贵模型. 有关麂属动物基因组演化依然有许多问题等待更加全面、深入的探讨. 本文总结了该领域研究进展, 并对未来研究热点进行了展望.     

Adaptive molecular evolution of HINTW,a female-specific gene in birds

It is well established that many genes on the male-specific Y chromosome of organisms such as mammals are involved in male reproduction and may evolve rapidly because of positive selection on male reproductive traits. In contrast, very little is known about the function and evolution of W-linked genes restricted to the female genome of organisms with female heterogamety. For birds (males ZZ, females ZW), only one W-linked gene (HINTW) is sufficiently different from its Z-linked homolog to indicate a female-specific function. Here, we report that HINTW shows evidence of adaptive molecular evolution, implying strong positive selection for new functional properties in female birds. Moreover, because HINTW is expressed in the gonads of female birds just before sexual differentiation and is thus a candidate for sex determination, it suggests adaptive evolution related to female development. This provides the first example of Darwinian evolution of a gene restricted to the female genome of any organism. Given that HINTW exists in multiple copies on W, similar to some testis-specific genes amplified on mammalian Y, avian HINTW may thus potentially represent a female parallel to the organization and evolution of Y chromosome genes involved in male reproduction and development.     

A supernumerary “B-sex” chromosome drives male sex determination in the Pachón cavefish,Astyanax mexicanus

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锦鸡儿属植物14个种类的核型

报道了锦鸡儿属Caragana 14种的核型,体细胞中期染色体的核型分别为：（1）柠条Caragana korshinskii Kom.2n=16=19m 7sm;(2)印度锦鸡儿C.gerardiana Royle 2n=16=12m 4sm;(3）锦鸡儿C.sinica(Buc‘hoz)Rehd。2n=24=15m 9sm;(4)狭叶锦鸡儿C.stenophylla Pojark 2n=32=21m 10sm 1st;(5)短脚锦鸡儿C.brachypoda Pojark.2n=16=8m 5sm 3st;(6)云南锦鸡儿C.franchetiana Kom.2n=16=13m 2sm 1st;(7)甘蒙锦鸡儿C.opulens Kom.2n=16 1b=8m 7sm 1st 1B;(8)刺叶锦鸡儿C.acanthopylla Pojark.2n=16=12m 4sm;(9)红花锦鸡儿C.rosea Maxim.2n=16=10m 6sm;(10)扁刺锦鸡儿C.boisi Schneid.2n=16=11m 4sm 1st;(11)二色锦鸡儿C.bicolor Kom.2n=16 1b=10m 6sm 1B;（12）川西锦鸡儿C.erinacea Kom.2n=16=12m 3sm 1st;（13）粗刺锦鸡儿C.crassispina Marq.2n=16=10m 6sm;(14)树锦鸡儿C.arborescens Lam.2n=16 1b=10m 6sm 1b.其中短脚锦鸡儿、云南锦鸡儿、红花锦鸡儿、扁刺锦鸡儿、二色锦鸡儿、粗刺锦鸡儿的核型为首次报道。     

Human oocyte chromosome analysis: complicated cases and major pitfalls

Human oocytes that remained unfertilized in programmes of assisted reproduction have been analysed cytogenetically for more than 20 years to assess the incidence of aneuploidy in female gametes. However, the results obtained so far are not indisputable as a consequence of difficulties in evaluating oocyte chromosome preparations. Because of the lack of guidelines, we decided to summarize for the first time, the possible pitfalls in human oocyte chromosome analysis. Therefore, we screened the material from our previous studies and compiled representative, complicated cases with recommendations for their cytogenetic classification. We point out that maturity and size of the oocyte are important parameters and that fixation artefacts, as well as the particular structure of oocyte chromosomes, may predispose one to misinterpretations. Moreover, phenomena related to oocyte activation and fertilization are illustrated and explained. This compilation may help to avoid major problems in future studies and contribute to a more precise, and uniform assessment of human oocyte chromosomes.     

Positive and negative selection on mammalian Y chromosomes

Y chromosomes are genetically degenerate in most organisms studied. The loss of genes from Y chromosomes is thought to be due to the inefficiency of purifying selection in nonrecombining regions, which leads to the accumulation of deleterious mutations via the processes of hitchhiking, background selection, and Muller's ratchet. As the severity of these processes depends on the number of functional genes linked together on the nonrecombining Y, it is not clear whether these processes are still at work on the old, gene-poor mammalian Y chromosomes. If purifying selection is indeed less efficient in the Y-linked, compared to the X-linked genes, deleterious nonsynonymous substitutions are expected to accumulate faster on the Y chromosome. However, positive selection on Y-linked genes could also increase the rate of amino acid-changing substitutions. Thus, the previous reports of an elevated nonsynonymous substitution rate in Y-linked genes are still open to interpretation. Here, we report evidence for positive selection in two out of three studied mammalian Y-linked genes, suggesting that adaptive Darwinian evolution may be common on mammalian Y chromosomes. Taking positive selection into account, we demonstrate that purifying selection is less efficient in mammalian Y-linked genes compared to their X-linked homologues, suggesting that these genes continue to degenerate.     

Chromosomes of Theridiidae spiders (Entelegynae): Interspecific karyotype diversity in Argyrodes and diploid number intraspecific variability in Nesticodes rufipes

Theridiidae is a derived family within the Araneoidea clade. In contrast to closely related groups, the 2n(male) = 20+X(1) X (2) with acro/telocentric chromosomes is the most widespread karyotype among the theridiid spiders. In this work, the cytogenetic analysis of Argyrodes elevatus revealed original chromosome features different from those previously registered for Theridiidae, including the presence of 2n(male) = 20+X with meta/submetacentric chromosomes. Most individuals of Nesticodes rufipes showed family conserved karyotype characteristics. However, one individual had a 2n(male) = 24 due to the presence of an extra chromosome pair, which exhibited regular behavior and reductional segregation during meiosis. After silver staining, mitotic cells exhibited NORs localized on the terminal regions of the short arms of pairs 2, 3, and 4 of A. elevatus and on the terminal regions of long arms of pair 4 of N. rufipes. The comparative analysis with data from phylogenetically related species allowed the clarification of the origin of the interspecific and intraspecific chromosome variability observed in Argyrodes and in N. rufipes, respectively.     

Transfer of a parasitic sex factor to the nuclear genome of the host: A hypothesis on the evolution of sex-determining mechanisms in the terrestrial Isopod Armadillidium vulgare Latr.

In A. vulgare sex is usually determined either by a cytoplasmic feminizing factor (F symbiotic bacteria) or by another feminizing factor (f) which behaves like a mobile element of DNA and which seems to correspond to a fragment of bacterial DNA. By inhibiting the expression of male genes carried by the Z heterochromosome, these feminizing factors induce differentiation of neo-females [ZZ(+F) or ZZ(+f)]. Such a mechanism leads to the production of progenies whose sex ratio is highly female biased. In some populations in which F and/or f factors are present, genetic females (WZ) have disappeared and all individuals (males and females) are genetic males. However in other populations, cohabitation of ZZ(+f) neo-females and females in all points similar to genetic females is observed. Such a situation may be unstable and is not likely to be explainable only by migrations of individuals from distinct populations. Owing to certain types of crosses, in particular those which involve an artificial neo-male ( = female reversed into a functional male by an implant of androgenic gland) we show here that the f factor can be transmitted as a Mendelian gene. In these progenies Z_fZ females may appear: like WZ females, they breed broods whose sex ratio is unbiased. The hypothesis that the “F bacteria—A. vulgare” symbiosis may have led, after a complex co-evolutive process (F bacteria → f mobile element → insertion of f on Z heterochromosome), to the creation (from a male genotype) of a female genotype, is put forward. The consequences of such a phenomenon on the composition and the evolution of A. vulgare populations are examined.