Characterisation of the glnK-amtB operon and the involvement of AmtB in methylammonium uptake in Azorhizobium caulinodans

This work reports the characterisation of the Azorhizobium caulinodans amtB gene, the deduced protein sequence of which shares similarity to those of several ammonium transporters. amtB is located downstream from glnK, a glnB-like gene. It is cotranscribed with glnK from an NtrC- and σ⁵⁴-dependent promoter. glnK and amtB insertion mutant strains have been isolated. Methylammonium uptake was assayed in these strains and in other mutant strains in which the regulation of nitrogen metabolism is impaired. Our data suggest that the AmtB protein is an ammonium transporter, which is mainly regulated by NtrC in response to nitrogen availability.     

Characterization of the glnK-amtB Operon of Azotobacter vinelandii

To determine whether in Azotobacter vinelandii the P_II protein influences the regulation of nif gene expression in response to fluxes in the ammonium supply, the gene encoding P_II was isolated and characterized. Its deduced translation product was highly similar to P_II proteins from other organisms, with the greatest degree of relatedness being exhibited to the Escherichia coli glnK gene product. A gene designated amtB was found downstream of and was cotranscribed with glnK as in E. coli. The AmtB protein is similar to functionally characterized ammonium transport proteins from a few other eukaryotes and one other prokaryote. glnK and amtB comprise an operon. Attempts to isolate a stable glnK mutant strain were unsuccessful, suggesting that glnK, like glnA, is an essential gene in A. vinelandii. amtB mutants were isolated, and although growth on limiting amounts of ammonium was similar in the mutant and wild-type strains, the mutants were unable to transport [¹⁴C]methylammonium.     

Characterization of the orf1glnKamtB operon of Herbaspirillum seropedicae

Herbaspirillum seropedicae is an endophytic nitrogen-fixing bacterium that colonizes economically important grasses. In this organism, the amtB gene is co-transcribed with two other genes: glnK that codes for a PII-like protein and orf1 that codes for a probable periplasmatic protein of unknown function. The expression of the orf1glnKamtB operon is increased under nitrogen-limiting conditions and is dependent on NtrC. An amtB mutant failed to transport methylammonium. Post-translational control of nitrogenase was also partially impaired in this mutant, since a complete switch-off of nitrogenase after ammonium addition was not observed. This result suggests that the AmtB protein is involved in the signaling pathway for the reversible inactivation of nitrogenase in H. seropedicae.     

钝齿棒杆菌GlnK在氮代谢调控及L-精氨酸合成中的功能

【目的】钝齿棒杆菌是重要的氨基酸生产菌株,本研究针对氮代谢PⅡ信号转导蛋白GlnK展开相关功能研究,分析其在钝齿棒杆菌氮代谢调控及L-精氨酸合成中的作用。【方法】以GlnK蛋白为研究对象,通过基因敲除等遗传方法获得过表达、敲除及敲弱glnK的重组钝齿棒杆菌,研究GlnK对NH_4~+吸收的影响,通过RT-qPCR和酶活测定,从转录水平和蛋白水平上揭示GlnK对氮代谢和L-精氨酸合成相关基因表达水平及酶活的影响,通过5-L发酵罐发酵产L-精氨酸研究GlnK对L-精氨酸合成的影响。【结果】过表达glnK能明显促进NH_4~+的吸收,而敲除glnK后则会抑制NH_4~+的摄取;RT-qPCR和酶活测定发现,相比于野生型菌株Cc5-5,glnK过表达菌株Cc-glnK中与铵吸收相关的基因,表达量平均上调约4.58倍,L-精氨酸合成基因簇中基因的表达水平平均上调1.50倍。Cc-glnK中氮代谢相关蛋白的酶活平均提高46.97%;L-精氨酸合成途径上7个关键酶的酶活平均提高30.00%;5-L发酵罐发酵各重组菌株结果表明,Cc-glnK菌株的产量可达49.53 g/L,产率为0.516 g/(L·h),相比于出发菌株Cc5-5,其L-精氨酸产量提高了28.65%。【结论】过表达GlnK能促进NH_4~+的吸收及利用,并通过影响L-精氨酸合成途径上关键基因的表达水平,提高关键酶的酶活,最终提高L-精氨酸的产量。本研究为后续探索钝齿棒杆菌氮代谢调控机制及代谢工程改造钝齿棒杆菌生产L-精氨酸提供了一种新的策略。     

Isolation and characterization of a new gene, sre , which encodes a GATA-type regulatory protein that controls iron transport in Neurospora crassa

Multiple GATA factors – regulatory proteins with consensus zinc finger motifs that bind to DNA elements containing a GATA core sequence – exist in the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa. One GATA factor, NIT2, controls nitrogen metabolism, whereas two others, WC-1 and WC-2, regulate genes responsive to blue light induction. A gene encoding a new GATA factor, named SRE, was isolated from Neurospora using a PCR-mediated method. Sequence analysis of the new GATA factor gene revealed an ORF specifying 587 amino acids, which is interrupted by two small introns. Unlike all previously known Neurospora GATA factors, which possess a single zinc-finger DNA-binding motif, SRE contains two GATA-type zinc fingers. The deduced amino acid sequence of SRE shows significant similarity to URBS1 of Ustilago and SREP of Penicillium. A loss-of-function mutation was created by the RIP procedure. Analysis of sre ⁺ and sre ⁻ strains revealed that SRE acts as a negative regulator of iron uptake in Neurospora by controlling the synthesis of siderophores. Siderophore biosynthesis is repressed by high iron concentrations in the wild-type strain but not in sre ⁻ mutant cells. The sre promoter contains a number of GATA sequences; however, expression of sre mRNA occurs in a constitutive fashion and is not regulated by the concentration of iron available to the cells. Received: 20 January 1998 / Accepted: 23 April 1998     

Sequential functioning of Sym-13 and Sym-31 , two genes affecting symbiosome development in root nodules of pea ( Pisum sativum L.)

Two Fix⁻ mutants of pea (Pisum sativum L.) which are unable to fix molecular nitrogen, E135f (sym-13) and Sprint-2Fix⁻ (sym-31), were crossed to create the doubly homozygous recessive line, named RBT (sym-13, sym-31). The ultrastructural organization of nodules of the RBT line was compared with that of each of the two parental mutant lines and with the original wild-type genotypes of the cultivars Sparkle and Sprint-2. It was shown that the RBT line is similar to the mutant line Sprint-2Fix⁻ in having abnormal symbiosome composition and bacteroids with relatively undifferentiated morphology. Because the phenotypic manifestation of the sym-31 mutant allele suppresses the phenotypic manifestation of the sym-13 mutant allele, it is concluded that the function of the gene Sym-31 (which is mutated in the Sprint-2Fix⁻ line) is necessary at an earlier stage of symbiosome development than the gene Sym-13 (which is mutant in the E135f line). Received: 28 October 1996 / Accepted: 22 January 1997     

Role of PII proteins in nitrogen fixation control of Herbaspirillum seropedicae strain SmR1

Background  

The PII protein family comprises homotrimeric proteins which act as transducers of the cellular nitrogen and carbon status in prokaryotes and plants. In Herbaspirillum seropedicae, two PII-like proteins (GlnB and GlnK), encoded by the genes glnB and glnK, were identified. The glnB gene is monocistronic and its expression is constitutive, while glnK is located in the nlmAglnKamtB operon and is expressed under nitrogen-limiting conditions.     

Cloning and characterization of the rpoH gene of Rhodobacter capsulatus

By using an oligonucleotide mixture corresponding to a region highly conserved among alternative sigma factors we identified a new σ factor gene (rpoH) from Rhodobacter capsulatus. This gene encodes a protein of 34 kDa with strong similarity to the RpoH (σ ³²) factors from other bacterial species. It was not possible to inactivate the R. capsulatusrpoH gene by introducing a resistance cassette, implying that it is essential for growth. The 5′ ends of the mRNAs were mapped to two sequences with similarity to an rpoH- and an rpoD-dependent promoter, respectively. The amounts of both these mRNAs increased after heat shock, but were unaffected by a decrease in oxygen tension. Western analysis using a σ factor-specific antibody revealed the accumulation of a protein of about 34 kDa after heat shock, and an increase in the amounts of a protein with the same size after reduction of oxygen tension in R. capsulatus cultures. Received: 16 March 1998 / Accepted: 28 July 1998     

Ammonium repression of the nitrite-nitrate ( nasAB ) assimilatory operon of Azotobacter vinelandii is enhanced in mutants expressing the nifO gene at high levels

A number of Tn5 mutants were isolated which were unable to fix nitrogen and showed enhanced ammonium repression of the nitrate/nitrite assimilation genes. They also had reduced nitrate reductase activity under fully inducing conditions. Insertions were localized within the nifB gene, and inability to fix nitrogen was shown to be due to disruption of the nifB gene. However, enhanced ammonium repression proved to be the result of constitutive expression of the downstream nifO gene from an `out' promoter present in Tn5. Our results suggest that molybdenum metabolism might function as a regulatory factor that acts through the nitrate reductase. Received: 4 December 1996 / Accepted: 27 March 1997     

The uvsC and uvsE genes of Aspergillus nidulans are not required for the mutagenic repair of UV damage

The uvsC gene of Aspergillus nidulans is a homolog of the RAD51 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, with respect to its effects on UV mutagenesis, it differs from the yeast gene, since it seems to be required for UV mutagenesis; however, this conclusion is based only on data from resting conidia. To further clarify the functional role of the uvsC gene, we tested the UV mutability of strains bearing a uvsC mutation in resting as well as in germinating conidia, by the p-fluoro-phenyl-alanine resistance test. We also evaluated the mutability of the uvsE mutant which belongs to the same epistatic group. Our results show that the uvsC and uvsE genes do not have a significant role in the mutagenic UV-repair pathway. Received: 20 January 1998 / Accepted: 22 April 1998     

Genetic interactions between a null allele of the RIT1 gene encoding an initiator tRNA-specific modification enzyme and genes encoding translation factors in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene RIT1 encodes a phospho-ribosyl transferase that exclusively modifies the initiator tRNA (tRNA^Met _i) by the addition of a 2′-O-ribosyl phosphate group to Adenosine 64. As a result, tRNA^Met _i is prevented from participating in the elongation steps of protein synthesis. We previously showed that the modification is not essential for the function of tRNA^Met _i in the initiation of translation, since rit1 null strains are viable and show no obvious growth defects. Here, we demonstrate that yeast strains in which a rit1 null allele is combined with mutations in any of the genes for the three subunits of eukaryotic initiation factor-2 (eIF-2), or with disruption alleles of two of the four initiator methionine tRNA (IMT) genes, show synergistic growth defects. A multicopy plasmid carrying an IMT gene can alleviate these defects. On the other hand, introduction of a high-copy-number plasmid carrying the TEF2 gene, which encodes the eukaryotic elongation factor 1α (eEF-1α), into rit1 null strains with two intact IMT genes had the opposite effect, indicating that increased levels of eEF-1α are deleterious to these strains, presumably due to sequestration of the unmodified met-tRNA^Met _i for elongation. Thus, under conditions in which the components of the ternary met-tRNA^Met _i:GTP:eIF-2 complex become limiting or are functionally impaired, the presence of the 2′-O-ribosyl phosphate modification in tRNA^Met _i is important for the provision of adequate amounts of tRNA^Met _i for formation of this ternary complex. Received: 20 November 1998 / Accepted: 7 April 1999     

Isolation, characterization and disruption of the areA nitrogen regulatory gene of Gibberella fujikuroi

The gene areA-GF, a homologue of the major nitrogen regulatory genes nit-2, areA, nre and NUT1 of Neurospora crassa, Aspergillus nidulans, Penicillium chrysogenum and Magnaporthe grisea, respectively, was cloned from the gibberellin (GA)-producing rice pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi.areA-GF encodes a protein of 972 amino acid residues which contains a single putative zinc finger DNA-binding domain that is at least 98% identical to the zinc finger domains of the homologous fungal proteins. The areA-GF gene has been shown to be functional in N. crassa by heterologous complementation of a RIP induced nit-2 mutant. The transformation rate was nearly as high as in a homologous complementation control. Transformants were able to utilize nitrate and expressed a normally regulated nitrate reductase activity. To generate areA-GF  ⁻ mutants, gene replacement experiments were performed using a linearized replacement vector carrying the hygromycin B phosphotransferase (hph) gene. The replacement of the zinc finger by the hygromycin cassette resulted in transformants which were unable to utilize nitrogen sources other than ammonium and glutamine, and gave significantly reduced gibberellin production yields. Complementation of such a mutant with the wild-type gene led to the full recovery of gibberellin production. Received: 23 April 1998 / Accepted: 16 October 1998     

A mutation in the gene for trigger factor suppresses the defect in cell division in the divE42 mutant of Escherichia coli K12

A total of sixteen spontaneously generated, independent suppressor mutants was isolated from a mutant (divE42) of Escherichia coli K12 that is defective in cell division. One of the suppressor mutants, designated TR4, had a novel phenotype: it was able to grow at 42° C but not at 32° C. The Kohara genomic library was screened for complementing clones. Clone 148 was able to complement the mutation responsible for the cold-sensitive phenotype, and the gene for trigger factor (tig), which encodes a ribosome-associated peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase, was identified as the mutated gene by deletion analysis with the insert DNA from clone 148. DNA sequencing revealed that the mutation in the tig gene of the TR4 suppressor mutant was a single nucleotide insertion (+A) at a distance of 834 nucleotides from the initiation codon for this enzyme. When the wild-type tig gene was introduced into the TR4 suppressor mutant, the bacteria were able to grow at 32° C but not at 42° C, an indication that the intergenic suppressor mutation was recessive to the wild-type allele. A model is proposed that accounts for the phenotypes of the divE42 mutant and the TR4 suppressor mutant. Received: 3 March 1998 / Accepted: 14 July 1998     

Analysis of eryBI , eryBIII and eryBVII from the erythromycin biosynthetic gene cluster in Saccharopolyspora erythraea

The gene cluster (ery) governing the biosynthesis of the macrolide antibiotic erythromycin A by Saccharopolyspora erythraea contains, in addition to the eryA genes encoding the polyketide synthase, two regions containing genes for later steps in the pathway. The region 5′ of eryA that lies between the known genes ermE (encoding the erythromycin resistance methyltransferase) and eryBIII (encoding a putative S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methyltransferase), and that contains the gene eryBI (orf2), has now been sequenced. The inferred product of the eryBI gene shows striking sequence similarity to authentic β-glucosidases. Specific mutants were created in eryBI, and the resulting strains were found to synthesise erythromycin A, showing that this gene, despite its position in the biosynthetic gene cluster, is not essential for erythromycin biosynthesis. A␣mutant in eryBIII and a double mutant in eryBI and eryBIII were obtained and the analysis of novel erythromycins produced by these strains confirmed the proposed function of EryBIII as a C-methyltransferase. Also, a chromosomal mutant was constructed for the previously sequenced ORF19 and shown to accumulate erythronolide B, as expected for an eryB mutant and consistent with its proposed role as an epimerase in dTDP-mycarose biosynthesis. Received: 13 August 1997 / Accepted: 27 November 1997     

Crosstalk between cAMP and pheromone signalling pathways in Ustilago maydis

In the phytopathogenic basidiomycete Ustilago maydis mating and dikaryon formation are controlled by a pheromone/receptor system and the multiallelic b locus. Recently, a gene encoding a G protein α subunit, gpa3, was isolated and has subsequently been implicated in pheromone signal transduction. Mutants deleted for gpa3 are sterile and nonpathogenic, and exhibit a morphology that is similar to that of mutants with defects in the adenylate cyclase gene uac1. We have found that the sterility and mutant morphology of gpa3 deletion strains can be rescued by exogenous cAMP. In these mutants and in the corresponding wild-type strains, exogenous cAMP stimulates pheromone gene expression to a level comparable to that seen in the pheromone-stimulated state. In addition, we demonstrate that uac1 is epistatic to gpa3. We conclude that Gpa3 controls the cAMP signalling pathway in U.maydis and discuss how this pathway feeds into the pheromone response. Received: 4 May 1998 / Accepted: 24 July 1998     

Preferential mutagenesis of lacZ integrated at unique sites in the Escherichia coli chromosome

To study the variation in spontaneous mutation frequencies in different chromosomal domains, a mini-Mu-kan-lacZ ⁻transposable element was constructed to insert the lacZ ⁻(Trp570 → Opal) allele into many different loci in the Escherichia coli chromosome. Papillation on MacConkey lactose plates was used to screen for mini-Mu insertion mutants with elevated levels of spontaneous mutagenesis of lacZop → LacZ⁺ candidates were then screened for normal mutation frequencies in other genes. Two different insertion mutants with this enhanced mutagenesis phenotype were isolated from 14 000 colonies, and named plm-1 (preferential lacZmutagenesis) and plm-2. The frequency of LacZ⁻→ LacZ⁺ mutations in these plm mutants was over 400-fold higher than that in isogenic strains containing mini-Mu-kan-lacZop insertions at other loci. Six Lac⁺ reversion (or suppression) mutations obtained from each of the two plm mutants were mapped by P1 transduction and all were found to be linked to the Kan^r gene in the mini-Mu-kan-lacZop, suggesting that a localized mutagenic event is responsible for the preferential mutagenesis. Furthermore, both the LacZ⁺→ LacZ⁻and Kan^r→ Kan^s mutant frequencies of these Lac⁺ revertants were in the range of 10⁻³ to 10⁻², indicating that this putative localized mutagenesis is neither allele nor gene specific. To identify the plm loci, the chromosomal regions flanking the mini-Mu insertion sites were cloned and sequenced. A computer-assisted database search of homologous sequences revealed that the plm-1 locus is identical to the mutS gene; the mini-Mu insertion most probably results in the production of a truncated MutS protein. We suggest that the enhanced lacZ mutation frequency in plm-1 may be associated with an active process involving the putative truncated MutS protein. The DNA sequence of the plm-2 locus matched a putative malate oxidoreductase gene located at 55.5 min of the E. coli chromosome. Received: 1 August 1996 / Accepted: 3 April 1997