Extraintestinal sporozoites of chicken Eimeria in chickens and turkeys

Oocysts were found in the feces of chickens (recipients) dosed orally with whole blood, liver, lung, or heart homogenates from chickens and turkeys (donors) inoculated 3 and 4 days previously with a mixture of 3.5 X 10(6) oocysts of chicken Eimeria. No oocysts were found in the feces of recipients given spleen homogenates from these same chickens and turkeys and none were found in the feces of recipients given similar material from uninoculated donors. Intracellular sporazoites were found in the peripheral blood of a turkey inoculated with chicken Eimeria. The results indicate that a small number of sporozoites are capable of invading and surviving for at least 4 days in the peripheral blood of chickens and turkeys.     

Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Eimeria from turkeys and gamebirds: implications for evolutionary relationships in Galliform birds

In order to determine the evolutionary relationships among Eimeria species that parasitize birds of the Galliformes, the 18s rDNA gene and a portion of the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (cox-1) were amplified from Eimeria species isolated from turkeys, chukars, and pheasants. The phylogenetic analysis of these sequences suggests that species infecting chickens are polyphyletic and, therefore, do not all share a direct common ancestor. Both the 18s rDNA and the cox-1 sequences indicate that Eimeria tenella and Eimeria necatrix are more closely related to Eimeria of turkeys and pheasants than to other species that infect the chicken. It is, therefore, likely that the chicken Eimeria spp. represent 2 separate ancestral colonizations of the gut, one of which comprises E. tenella and E. necatrix that infect the ceca, while the other includes Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria brunetti, Eimeria maxima, and Eimeria mitis, which infect the upper regions of the intestine.     

Rejection of Eimeria by foreign hosts.

Oocysts of Eimeria maxima inoculated into guinea fowl do not develop. Infection occurs when intestinal mucosa or liver tissue from guinea fowl given E. maxima is transferred to susceptible chickens. By transferring material at different times after inoculation, it was shown that most of the stages are lost between 6 and 12 h and few, if any, survive to 48 h. Sporozoites of E. tenella had low infectivity after 48 h contact in vitro with peritoneal macrophages from guinea fowls and turkeys. Sporozoites of E. grenieri from the guinea fowl appeared to be destroyed within macrophages taken from chickens.     

Comparison Between a Live,Attenuated Anticoccidial Vaccine and an Anticoccidial Ionophore,on Performance of Broilers Raised with or without a Growth Promoter,in an Initially Eimeria-Free Environment

An experiment was carried out to study the effects of vaccination with Paracox®, a live, attenuated vaccine against avian coccidiosis, on broilers isolated from extraneous Eimeria parasites. The study involved 3200 broiler chickens raised in floor pens similar to commercial conditions, but in an initially Eimeria-free environment. Forty percent of the chickens were vaccinated at 3 days of age and given either a basal unmedicated feed or a feed supplemented with the feed antibiotic virginiamycin. Unvaccinated birds were given either the basal feed or feed supplemented either with virginiamycin or the anticoccidial ionophore narasin. At slaughter at 36 days of age vaccinated birds had a lower live weight than non-vaccinated birds. The difference was 4.6% in unmedicated, and 6.0% in virginiamycin medicated chickens. Feed conversion ratio at slaughter was 2.5% higher for unmedicated vaccinated birds, and 1.3% higher for virginiamycin medicated vaccinated birds, compared to respective non-vaccinated groups. There was no significant difference in overall performance of unvaccinated birds given narasin as compared to virginiamycin. At 10 days post vaccination vaccinated birds had a higher number of Clostridium perfringens in the caeca, but there was no difference thereafter. Throughout the experiment, caecal clostridial counts were considerably higher in vaccinated unmedicated birds than in unvaccinated birds given narasin. The number of oocysts shed in the vaccinated groups was very low, but during a subsequent challenge with E. maxima and E. tenella the birds’ immunity was found to be satisfactory.     

The effects of corticosterone and catecholamine infusion on plasma glucose levels in chicken (Gallus domesticus) and Turkey (Meleagris gallapavo)

1. Continuous 5hr infusion of low levels of corticosterone, epinephrine, isoproterenol or phenylephrine plus a high dose bolus injection at 3 hr had different effects on the plasma glucose levels of chickens and turkeys.2. Corticosterone had no effect on plasma glucose in turkeys, but increased glucose after the bolus and at 270 and 300 min for chickens.3. Epinephrine increased plasma glucose in turkeys, but only caused a transient elevation after the bolus in chickens.4. Isoproterenol increased plasma glucose in turkeys, but had no effect in chickens.5. Phenylephrine increased plasma glucose after the bolus in turkeys but had no effect in chickens.     

An investigation of the persistence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in an Eastern population of wild turkeys

Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection had been confirmed by culture and serology among wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in close association with domestic fowl on Cumberland Island, Georgia (USA) in 1980. In 1988, wild turkeys were surveyed by serologic and cultural methods for evidence of M. gallisepticum. Chickens (Gallus gallus) and guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) from the site where the disease was originally detected also were tested by serologic and cultural methods for M. gallisepticum infections. There was no conclusive evidence that M. gallisepticum was present in wild turkeys or guinea fowl. In contrast, most chickens were strongly seropositive for M. gallisepticum, suggesting that they had been infected, although the organism was not recovered by cultural or bioassay methods. Other species of Mycoplasma isolated were M. gallopavonis from wild turkeys, M. gallinaceum and M. pullorum from chickens, and M. gallinaceum from guinea fowl. It appears that M. gallisepticum has not persisted or spread in the wild turkey population on Cumberland Island, despite continued contact by some wild turkeys with suspected carrier chickens.     

Studies on comparative drug metabolism by hepatic cytochrome P-450-containing microsomal enzymes in quail, ducks, geese, chickens, turkeys and rats

1. These studies were carried out to compare certain hepatic microsomal drug-metabolizing enzymes of quail, ducks, geese, chickens, turkeys and rats. 2. Comparison of relative liver weights of the species indicated that the rats had the largest weight followed by turkeys, ducks, geese, chickens and quail. 3. Rats ranked highest in hepatic cytochrome P-450 content followed in decreasing order by turkeys, geese, chickens, ducks and quail. 4. Microsomal benzphetamine N-demethylase activity was significantly higher in geese and turkeys than that for the rest of the species. 5. Geese, chickens and turkeys showed similar aniline hydroxylase activity, while it was markedly lower in quail and ducks with rats being intermediate.     

Eimeria tenella,Eimeria necatrix, and Eimeria adenoeides: Peripheral blood leukocyte response of chickens and turkeys to strains adapted to the turkey embryo

The peripheral blood leukocyte responses of chickens and turkeys inoculated with one of three strains of a chicken Eimeria species adapted to the turkey embryo with their respective parent lines, or with E. adenoeides of the turkey were studied. The adapted lines tended to cause hematological changes in chickens and turkeys similar to those caused by E. adenoeides. These parasites caused the most significant increases in large mononuclear white blood cells = (monocytes) in both chickens and turkeys. These results provide further evidence for a monocyte/macrophage effector mechanism in the rejection of heterologous species of Eimeria from a nonspecific host. The results also agree with previous studies that show that increases in mononuclear white blood cells during parent E. tenella and E. necatrix infections in chickens occur during the periods of greatest tissue damage (3–4 days after inoculation). The generally unaffected lymphocyte numbers and increases in mononuclear white blood cells during infections with the adapted lines probably explain the reduced pathogenicity and the lack of immunogenicity seen previously in chickens inoculated with these three lines. Possibly, monocytes/macrophages play a role in the host specificity of the parasites.     

Identification with monoclonal antibodies of glycoproteins of Marek''s disease virus and herpesvirus of turkeys related to virus neutralization.

By use of monoclonal antibodies cross-reactive with Marek's disease virus and herpesvirus of turkeys, three glycoproteins (for Marek's disease virus, gp115/110, gp63, and gp50; for herpesvirus of turkeys, gp115, gp62 and gp52) related to virus neutralization were identified. Immunization of chickens or rabbits with these glycoproteins purified by affinity chromatography resulted in production of neutralizing antibodies.     

Recombinant-derived chicken growth hormone used for radioimmunoassay

The use of recombinant-derived chicken growth hormone (rcGH) in an avian growth hormone (GH) radioimmunoassay (RIA) procedure is described. Antiserum to turkey GH bound 125I-labeled rcGH, and unlabeled rcGH or turkey GH displaced binding in a dose-related manner. The dose-response curves of sera and pituitary extract from chickens and turkeys were parallel to the rcGH standard curve. Sera from hypophysectomized (hypox) chickens and turkeys produced no dose-response and did not inhibit binding of labeled rcGH. Recovery of rcGH added to hypox sera was quantitative. Modification of the homologous turkey GH RIA protocol of Proudman and Wentworth (1) to use rcGH made possible either an increase in assay sensitivity or a 3-day reduction in incubation time.     

The serum ferroxidase activity and the iron mobilization by estrogens

The serum ferroxidase activity and the iron mobilization of estrogens were studied in chickens and turkeys. Serum iron and copper were determined in 20 male chickens, 5 adult females (not laying), 12 laying chickens, 13 male turkeys, 5 adult females (not laying), and 4 laying turkeys. Serum iron and copper increased simultaneously during the laying period as a consequence of a higher estrogen level during this period. Evidence of this was obtained by injecting estradiol benzoate (3 mg estradiol, 3 times/week for 2 weeks) which produced a 6-fold increase of serum iron and copper. The levels dropped to base line values after a third week without treatment. A maximum ferroxidase activity was noted during the laying period representing a 20-fold incre ase while iron showed a 7-fold increase. 2 mg diethylstilbestrol/kg adm inistered to 6 immature pullets demonstrated an increase in the ferroxid ase activity with a peak at 36 hours and a peak of iron at 60 hours. Serum mare gonadotrophin caused a significant increase in ferroxidase activity by Day 14 (p less than .0001). These results suggest that the ferroxidase induction by exogenous estrogens or by endogenous estrogens is an identical effect.     

The wild turkey as a host for Heterakis gallinarum and Histomonas meleagridis.

Freshly embryonated eggs of Heterakis gallinarum gathered from naturally infected domestic turkeys and chickens developed the first 4 weeks essentially as well in young wild turkeys as in domestic poults, but then became progressively retarded and failed in most birds to result in females with fertile eggs. There was no significant difference in the prevalence or progress of infections with Histomonas meleagridis in the two kinds of turkeys, both of which differed from chickens only in that the latter had neither liver involvement nor mortality. In a second test, heterakids hatched from eggs stored 5-6 months at 4 C (comparable to overwintering) sustained very heavy losses in all birds, with greatly accelerated liberations of H. meleagridis, Few worms reached maturity and still fewer produced fertile eggs. In turkeys, and especially in wild turkeys, replacement of infective stages was so poor, that these birds were of no importance in contaminating the soil.     

Structure and dimorphism of c-rel (turkey), the cellular homolog to the oncogene of reticuloendotheliosis virus strain T.

A locus has been identified in turkey DNA that contains nucleotide sequences homologous to the oncogene (v-rel) in the avian retrovirus, reticuloendotheliosis virus strain T. This locus, c-rel, has been molecularly cloned from an apparently heterozygous turkey. c-rel is approximately 23 kilobase pairs in length, with at least seven apparent introns, and contains sequences sufficient to account for all of v-rel. Nucleic acid sequence differences exist between v-rel and homologous regions of c-rel. We examined a population of turkeys to determine whether these sequence differences are the result of polymorphism in the population. Within the turkey population, c-rel is dimorphic in apparent introns and 3' flanking sequences, but polymorphism has not been detected within the regions of the c-rel locus that are homologous to v-rel. Additionally, no nucleic acid sequence differences have been detected between the regions of c-rel in turkeys that are homologous to v-rel and the sequences related to v-rel of a homologous locus in chickens (Chen et al., J. Virol. 245:104-113, 1983). The general organization of introns and flanking sequences is conserved for both c-rel in turkeys and this locus in chickens, indicating that c-rel, like other proto-oncogenes, may have an important development or metabolic function.     

Allantoin,the oxidation product of uric acid is present in chicken and turkey plasma

Urate oxidase is not present in birds yet allantoin, a product of this enzyme, has been measured in birds. Studies were designed to compare the concentrations of plasma purine derivatives in chickens and turkeys fed inosine-supplemented diets. The first study consisted of 12 male chicks that were fed diets supplemented with 0.6 mol inosine or hypoxanthine per kilogram diet from 3- to 6-week-old. Study 2 consisted of 12 turkey poults (toms) fed inosine-supplemented diets (0.7 mol/kg) from 6- to 8-week-old. Plasma allantoin and oxypurines concentrations were measured weekly using high performance liquid chromatography. Plasma uric acid (PUA) in chickens fed inosine-supplemented diets increased from 0.31 to 1.34 mM (P<0.05) at the end of week 2. In turkeys, those fed control diet had 0.17 mM PUA concentration compared to 0.3 mM in those fed the inosine diet at week 2 (P<0.05). Allantoin concentration increased in chickens from week 1 to 2 while a decrease was observed in turkeys (P<0.005) for both treatments. These data show that allantoin is present in turkey and chicken plasma. The presence of allantoin in avian plasma is consistent with uric acid acting as an antioxidant in these species.     

Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii clonal type-specific antibody reactions in experimentally infected turkeys and chickens

Due to their ground-feeding behaviour, free-ranging chickens and turkeys are exposed to oocysts and are good indicators of the presence of Toxoplasma gondii in the environment. In addition, poultry may become infected by ingestion of tissues of infected intermediate hosts such as small rodents. Free-ranging poultry are considered an important source of T. gondii infection in humans, especially in developing countries. Knowledge on T. gondii genotypes in infected animals and humans is important for understanding the epidemiology of T. gondii infections. The aim of the present study was to analyse the ability of experimentally infected turkeys and chickens to develop a T. gondii clonal type-specific antibody response (IgY) after i.v. inoculation with tachyzoites of three T. gondii clonal lineages, types I, II and III. A peptide microarray displaying a panel of 101 different synthetic peptides was used for serotyping. Peptide sequences were derived from polymorphic regions of 16?T. gondii proteins (GRA1, GRA3-7, SAG1, SAG2A, SAG3, SAG4, SRS1, SRS2, ROP1, NTPase I and NTPase III and BSR4). The array was probed with 120 sera from experimentally infected chickens and turkeys inoculated with different doses of T. gondii tachyzoites (10⁴, 10³ and 10²) collected from isolates representative for T. gondii clonal types I (RH), II (ME49) or III (NED) and uninfected controls. After screening of the peptides with reference sera from chickens and turkeys, and evaluation of data by Receiver Operating Characteristics analysis, 41 and 40 peptides were identified that appeared suitable to detect type-specific reactions with sera collected at 2, 5, 7 and 9?weeks p.i. Selected peptides allowed the identification of T. gondii clonal types, until 9?week p.i., which the chickens or turkeys had been inoculated with. At 9?weeks p.i., a high proportion of the experimentally infected chickens (67% (12/18)) and turkeys (61% (11/18)) no longer reacted with the selected peptides. Serotyping of the infection in individual chickens or turkeys was only possible when the whole peptide panel was applied. Clonal type-specific antibody responses were dynamic in both poultry species and depended on the individual animal and the time after infection.     

Prevalence and identity of coccidia in pen-raised wild turkeys

One hundred nineteen pen-raised wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from 12 locations in nine states in the United States were examined for coccidia by sugar flotation of intestinal contents and mucosa or by subinoculating the contents into uninfected domestic turkeys. Seventy-eight (66%) of the turkeys were positive for coccidia. There were no differences in the frequency of coccidia among adult, sub-adult or juvenile turkeys. More females (75%) were infected than males (48%). The species of coccidia from 30 of the turkeys were identified based on microscopic examination of oocysts, fresh scrapings, stained sections and inoculations of bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). The frequency of each species was Eimeria meleagrimitis (97%), E. gallopavonis (47%), E. meleagridis (27%), E. dispersa (17%), E. innocua-E. subrotunda (13%), E. adenoeides (7%) and an undescribed species (3%). Of the 30 turkeys in which the species of coccidia was determined, 30% had a single species infection, 40% had two species, 20% had three species and 10% had four species.     

Partial protection against Eimeria acervulina and Eimeria tenella induced by synthetic peptide vaccine

Coccidiosis is a major parasitic disease of poultry industry and an ideal vaccine should induce long-lasting cross-species protective immunity. Broiler chickens (Cobb 500) were inoculated with single, double or triple injections of a synthetic peptide (derived from sequences of Eimeria acervulina and Eimeria tenella antigens) homogenized in Freund's complete and incomplete adjuvants. The immune responses to the vaccine were assessed by evaluation of antibody and lymphocyte proliferation responses, and the degree of resistance of vaccinated chickens to challenge with sporulated oocysts of E. acervulina or E. tenella determined by comparison of their oocyst output with those of control chickens. The results indicated that the synthetic peptide vaccine induced a high level of antibody and cellular responses associated with partial cross-species protection against challenge with sporulated oocysts of E. acervulina or E. tenella.