Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Envelope Glycoproteins E1 and E2 Contain Reduced Cysteine Residues Essential for Virus Entry

The HCV envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2 contain eight and 18 highly conserved cysteine residues, respectively. Here, we examined the oxidation state of E1E2 heterodimers incorporated into retroviral pseudotyped particles (HCVpp) and investigated the significance of free sulfhydryl groups in cell culture-derived HCV (HCVcc) and HCVpp entry. Alkylation of free sulfhydryl groups on HCVcc/pp with a membrane-impermeable sulfhydryl-alkylating reagent 4-(N-maleimido)benzyl-α-trimethylammonium iodide (M135) prior to virus attachment to cells abolished infectivity in a dose-dependent manner. Labeling of HCVpp envelope proteins with EZ-Link maleimide-PEG2-biotin (maleimide-biotin) detected free thiol groups in both E1 and E2. Unlike retroviruses that employ disulfide reduction to facilitate virus entry, the infectivity of alkylated HCVcc could not be rescued by addition of exogenous reducing agents. Furthermore, the infectivity of HCVcc bound to target cells was not affected by addition of M135 indicative of a change in glycoprotein oxidation state from reduced to oxidized following virus attachment to cells. By contrast, HCVpp entry was reduced by 61% when treated with M135 immediately following attachment to cells, suggesting that the two model systems might demonstrate variations in oxidation kinetics. Glycoprotein oxidation was not altered following binding of HCVpp incorporated E1E2 to soluble heparin or recombinant CD81. These results suggest that HCV entry is dependent on the presence of free thiol groups in E1 and E2 prior to cellular attachment and reveals a new essential component of the HCV entry process.     

Modulation of Triglyceride and Cholesterol Ester Synthesis Impairs Assembly of Infectious Hepatitis C Virus

In hepatitis C virus infection, replication of the viral genome and virion assembly are linked to cellular metabolic processes. In particular, lipid droplets, which store principally triacylglycerides (TAGs) and cholesterol esters (CEs), have been implicated in production of infectious virus. Here, we examine the effect on productive infection of triacsin C and YIC-C8-434, which inhibit synthesis of TAGs and CEs by targeting long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase, respectively. Our results present high resolution data on the acylglycerol and cholesterol ester species that were affected by the compounds. Moreover, triacsin C, which blocks both triglyceride and cholesterol ester synthesis, cleared most of the lipid droplets in cells. By contrast, YIC-C8-434, which only abrogates production of cholesterol esters, induced an increase in size of droplets. Although both compounds slightly reduced viral RNA synthesis, they significantly impaired assembly of infectious virions in infected cells. In the case of triacsin C, reduced stability of the viral core protein, which forms the virion nucleocapsid and is targeted to the surface of lipid droplets, correlated with lower virion assembly. In addition, the virus particles that were released from cells had reduced specific infectivity. YIC-C8-434 did not alter the association of core with lipid droplets but appeared to decrease production of infectious virus particles, suggesting a block in virion assembly. Thus, the compounds have antiviral properties, indicating that targeting synthesis of lipids stored in lipid droplets might be an option for therapeutic intervention in treating chronic hepatitis C virus infection.     

Hepatitis C Virus: Assembly and Release of Virus Particles

Hepatitis C virus is a blood-borne virus that typically establishes a chronic infection in the liver, which often results in cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Progress in understanding the complete virus life cycle has been greatly enhanced by the recent availability of a tissue culture system that produces infectious virus progeny. Thus, it is now possible to gain insight into the roles played by viral components in assembly and egress and the cellular pathways that contribute to virion formation. This minireview describes the key determining viral and host factors that are needed to produce infectious virus.     

丙型肝炎病毒免疫电镜的初步研究

采用组织匀浆免疫沉淀后负染、免疫组化块染后包埋、原位包埋等免疫电镜技术,研究丙型肝炎病毒（ＨＣＶ）。组织匀浆、免疫沉定、负染后在电镜下观察到与ＨＣＶ相关的类病毒颗粒,形态与披膜病毒相似,大小多在５５～６５ｎｍ,圆形,有包膜,边缘略有突起或比较平滑,有胶体金结合在此种颗粒上及其周围。无关单抗阴性对照无类似颗粒及胶体金。免疫酶染电镜下还见到成堆可疑颗粒。此外,ＨＣＶ－Ｅ区抗原染色后原位包埋,尚发现胶体金大多结合于大小５０ｎｍ左右圆形结构的内部,表明Ｅ区单抗针对的特异性抗原位点位于这种结构的内侧。     

Morphological Characterization and Fusion Properties of Triglyceride-rich Lipoproteins Obtained from Cells Transduced with Hepatitis C Virus Glycoproteins

The density of hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles circulating in the blood of chronically infected patients and of cell-culture produced HCV is heterogeneous. Specific infectivity and fusion of low density particles are higher than those of high density particles. We recently characterized hybrid particles produced by Caco-2 colon or Huh-7.5 liver cells transduced with HCV E1 and E2 envelope glycoproteins. Caco-2-derived particles, called empty lipo-viral particles (eLVP), are composed of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins positive for apolipoproteins B (i.e. apoB100 and apoB48) and contain HCV E1 and E2. Here we aimed at characterizing the morphology and in vitro fusion properties of eLVP using electron microscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy. They displayed the aspect of β-lipoproteins, and immunogold labeling confirmed the presence of apoB and HCV E1 and E2 at their surface. These particles are able to fuse with lipid bilayers (liposomes) in a fusion process leading to the coalescence of internal contents of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins particles and liposomes. Fusion was pH-dependent and could be inhibited by either Z-fFG, a peptide known to inhibit viral fusion, or by monoclonal antibodies directed against HCV E2 or the apolipoprotein moiety of the hybrid particle. Interestingly, particles derived from Huh-7.5 cells failed to display equivalent efficient fusion. Optimal fusion activity is, thus, observed when HCV envelope proteins are associated to apoB-positive hybrid particles. Our results, therefore, point to a crucial role of the E1 and E2 proteins in HCV fusion with a subtle interplay with the apolipoprotein part of eLVP.     

河北省丙型肝炎病毒基因分型研究

丙型肝炎病毒 (Hepatitis C virus, HCV)感染是输血后肝炎的主要原因[1],主要通过输血或使用污染的血制品传播[2],且与肝硬化和肝细胞癌的发生有密切关系.     

丙型肝炎病毒E2基因DNA免疫实验动物研究

将编码丙型肝炎病毒（ＨＣＶ）Ｅ２蛋白４１７～７５０位氨基酸的ＤＮＡ片段　克隆到真核表达载体ｐｃＤＮＡ　３．１（－）中的ＣＭＶ　ＩＥ启动子下游,构建成ＨＣＶ　Ｅ２重组真核表达质粒　ｐｃＥ２。ＥＬＩＳＡ法检测ｐｃＥ２　ＤＮＡ免疫兔血清中的Ｅ２抗体变化和维持规律,结果显示免疫２０ｄ已有　抗体产生,３０ｄ后开始进入高峰,４０ｄ时达到最高值,至第９０ｄ抗体水平保持平稳,抗体滴度　达到１∶１６００左右。流式细胞计数仪（ＦＡＣＳ）检测ｐｃＥ２　ＤＮＡ免疫鼠ＣＤ４＋、ＣＤ８＋Ｔ淋巴细胞变　化情况,与注射空载体ｐＣＤＮＡ３．１（－）的阴性鼠相比,ＣＤ４＋淋巴细胞水平略有上升,ＣＤ８＋　细胞水平有较大升高,增幅达３５．４６％。免疫组化检测结果显示注射ｐｃＥ２的小鼠组织中有明显　的阳性着色,而注射ｐｃＤＮＡ３．１（－）的对照组小鼠免疫组化结果为阴性。以上结果表明：ｐｃＥ２　在实验动物内表达出的ＨＣＶ　Ｅ２蛋白可以引起免疫动物的体液免疫应答和细胞免疫应答,尤其　是ＭＨＣ－１限制性杀伤性ＣＤ８＋Ｔ淋巴细胞水平的提高对清除　病毒是十分有利的,因此ＨＣＶ　Ｅ２　ＤＮＡ免疫有可能成为预防和治疗ＨＣＶ感染的一条新途径。     

丙型肝炎病毒基因变异及候选保守表位分析

HCV分离株主要分为4个基因型(HCV Ⅰ～Ⅳ),各型间的氨基酸及核苷酸组成同源性均小于80％, 氨基酸变异率分别为C 8%,E1 35%,E2/NS1 53%,NS3 27%,NS4 35%,NS5 39%.不同型别的HCV有不同的地区分布特征.根据HCV表达产物多肽的保守性、亲水性、抗原性及空间构型等特性,已在HCV表达产物中鉴定出一些高度保守的候选B细胞表位及T细胞表位, 其中B细胞表位一般为12～40肽, T细胞表位一般为7～9肽, 这些B/T细胞保守表位的鉴定, 将有助于推动HCV的免疫治疗及疫苗研究的发展.     

河北省丙型肝炎病毒基因分型研究

Using nested RT-PCR and type special primers of HCV, we performed genotype analysis of HCV RNA from five representative cities in Hebei Province. Among 168 samples with HCV RNA, 104 sera was typelb(61.9%), type 2a account for 22.6% (38/168) , and lb/2a mixed-type was 15.5% (26/168) . The results indicate that typelb is the dominance strain in Hebei Province. Compared with type 2a, typelb has important relationship with chronic hepatitis C. This study build up some foundations for diagnosis, treatment and vaccine study of hepatitis C.     

HCV/HBV复合抗原基因的克隆、表达及免疫应答研究

为探讨ＨＣＶ／ＨＢＶ 复合疫苗的可行性,将合成的丙型肝炎病毒（ＨＣＶ）复合多表位抗原基因ＰＣＸ与ＨＢｓＡｇ 基因连接成ＰＣＸＳ基因,与β－半乳糖苷酶（ＧＺ）基因融合后在大肠杆菌及减毒鼠伤寒沙门氏菌中获得表达．目的蛋白ＧＺ－ＰＣＸＳ可被抗－ＨＢｓ 及抗－ＨＣＶ 抗体所特异识别．ＧＺ－ＰＣＸＳ抗原皮下注射免疫ＩＣＲ小鼠后,诱发了较高水平的抗－ＧＺ－ＰＣＸＳＩｇＧ反应．构建的重组减毒鼠伤寒沙门氏菌ＳＬ３２６１（ｐＷＲ／ＰＣＸＳ）口服免疫小鼠后,诱发了高水平的ＣＤ８＋ Ｔ细胞增殖反应及抗ＧＺ－ＰＣＸＳＩｇＧ反应．所有免疫小鼠均未见明显的毒副作用．该研究揭示,ＨＣＶ／ＨＢＶ 复合抗原可诱发特异性体液免疫及细胞免疫应答,而活菌苗口服可能是理想的免疫途径,为ＨＣＶ／ＨＢＶ 双价疫苗研究提供了一定的理论及实验依据．     

Structural Basis for Penetration of the Glycan Shield of Hepatitis C Virus E2 Glycoprotein by a Broadly Neutralizing Human Antibody

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. A challenge for HCV vaccine development is to identify conserved epitopes able to elicit protective antibodies against this highly diverse virus. Glycan shielding is a mechanism by which HCV masks such epitopes on its E2 envelope glycoprotein. Antibodies to the E2 region comprising residues 412–423 (E2_412–423) have broadly neutralizing activities. However, an adaptive mutation in this linear epitope, N417S, is associated with a glycosylation shift from Asn-417 to Asn-415 that enables HCV to escape neutralization by mAbs such as HCV1 and AP33. By contrast, the human mAb HC33.1 can neutralize virus bearing the N417S mutation. To understand how HC33.1 penetrates the glycan shield created by the glycosylation shift to Asn-415, we determined the structure of this broadly neutralizing mAb in complex with its E2_412–423 epitope to 2.0 Å resolution. The conformation of E2_412–423 bound to HC33.1 is distinct from the β-hairpin conformation of this peptide bound to HCV1 or AP33, because of disruption of the β-hairpin through interactions with the unusually long complementarity-determining region 3 of the HC33.1 heavy chain. Whereas Asn-415 is buried by HCV1 and AP33, it is solvent-exposed in the HC33.1-E2_412–423 complex, such that glycosylation of Asn-415 would not prevent antibody binding. Furthermore, our results highlight the structural flexibility of the E2_412–423 epitope, which may serve as an immune evasion strategy to impede induction of antibodies targeting this site by reducing its antigenicity.     

丙型肝炎病毒非结构蛋白NS4B诱导细胞非折叠蛋白反应

用RT-PCR和免疫印迹的方法检测稳定表达NS4B的HeLa细胞中的XBP1;通过RT-PCR的方法在表达NS4B的HeLa和Huh-7细胞中检测ATF6,Grp78和caspase-12的转录,并且通过报告基因的方法分析XBP1和Grp78启动子活性。实验结果表明:在表达NS4B的HeLa细胞中检测到XBP1的两种形式(剪接和未剪接),此外,在细胞中ATF6、Grp78的转录水平和XBP1、Grp78启动子的荧光素酶活性较没有表达NS4B的HeLa和Huh-7细胞中的量有所增加;通过染色质免疫沉淀实验(ChIP)分析,这些增加可能是由于XBP1结合到了这些基因的启动子上引起的。总之,实验结果可提示HCVNS4B通过ATF6或XBP1途径引起内质网压力,导致UPR反应。NS4B可能在HCV的致病性中起着重要的作用,特别是在慢性肝炎,甚至肝细胞癌中。     

中国丙型肝炎病毒基因型研究新进展

为了进一步了解中国丙型肝炎病毒基因型感染状态 ,我们建立了 5′ ＮＣＲＡＢＣ程序酶切分型法 :首先采用ＲＴＰＣＲ技术 5′ ＮＣＲ扩增ＨＣＶＲＮＡ阳性样品中的ｃＤＮＡ ,然后按照ＡＢＣ程序进行分型 ,Ａ应用ＢＨＨ(ＢｓｒＢⅠ ,ＨａｅⅡ ,ＨｉｎｆⅠ )复合内切酶消化 5′ ＮＣＲｃＤＮＡ ,Ｂ应用ＢｓｔＵⅠ消化 ,Ｃ应用ＨａｅⅢ消化 ,电泳检测片段大小。应用该方法对临床采集的ＨＣＶＲＮＡ阳性血清进行分型 ,在国内首次发...     

Characterization of Hepatitis C Virus Particle Subpopulations Reveals Multiple Usage of the Scavenger Receptor BI for Entry Steps

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles assemble along the very low density lipoprotein pathway and are released from hepatocytes as entities varying in their degree of lipid and apolipoprotein (apo) association as well as buoyant densities. Little is known about the cell entry pathway of these different HCV particle subpopulations, which likely occurs by regulated spatiotemporal processes involving several cell surface molecules. One of these molecules is the scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI), a receptor for high density lipoprotein that can bind to the HCV glycoprotein E2. By studying the entry properties of infectious virus subpopulations differing in their buoyant densities, we show that these HCV particles utilize SR-BI in a manifold manner. First, SR-BI mediates primary attachment of HCV particles of intermediate density to cells. These initial interactions involve apolipoproteins, such as apolipoprotein E, present on the surface of HCV particles, but not the E2 glycoprotein, suggesting that lipoprotein components in the virion act as host-derived ligands for important entry factors such as SR-BI. Second, we found that in contrast to this initial attachment, SR-BI mediates entry of HCV particles independent of their buoyant density. This function of SR-BI does not depend on E2/SR-BI interaction but relies on the lipid transfer activity of SR-BI, probably by facilitating entry steps along with other HCV entry co-factors. Finally, our results underscore a third function of SR-BI governed by specific residues in hypervariable region 1 of E2 leading to enhanced cell entry and depending on SR-BI ability to bind to E2.     

乙型肝炎病人重叠感染丙型肝炎的评价

应用ＥＬＩＳＡ和ＰＣＲ法检测５０２例乙肝病人血清,４０１例ＨＢｓＡｇ阳性血清中,有１１４例（２８．４％）抗－ＨＣＶ和ＨＣＶＲＮＡ双项阳性,２５例（６．２％）ＨＣＶＲＮＡ单项阳性;２１例（５．２％）抗－ＨＣＶ单项阳性。将ＨＢｓＡｇ乙肝病人分成ＨＢＶＤＮＡ,ＨＢｅＡｇ阳性组和ＨＢＶＤＮＡ,ＨＢｅＡｇ阴性组。前者抗－ＨＣＶ阳性率为１１．６％～２０．５％,ＨＣＶＲＮＡ阳性率为１６．２％～２０．５％。后者抗－ＨＣＶ阳性率为２０．２％～５５．６％,ＨＣＶＲＮＡ阳性率为２３％～６０．３％。结果说明长期携带ＨＢＶ者和慢性乙肝病人均可重叠ＨＣＶ感染。ＨＢＶＤＮＡ阳性组抗－ＨＣＶ和ＨＣＶＲＮＡ阳性率明显高于ＨＢＶＤＮＡ阳性组     

The Hepatitis C Virus Core Protein Inhibits Adipose Triglyceride Lipase (ATGL)-mediated Lipid Mobilization and Enhances the ATGL Interaction with Comparative Gene Identification 58 (CGI-58) and Lipid Droplets

Liver steatosis is a common health problem associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and an important risk factor for the development of liver fibrosis and cancer. Steatosis is caused by triglycerides (TG) accumulating in lipid droplets (LDs), cellular organelles composed of neutral lipids surrounded by a monolayer of phospholipids. The HCV nucleocapsid core localizes to the surface of LDs and induces steatosis in cultured cells and mouse livers by decreasing intracellular TG degradation (lipolysis). Here we report that core at the surface of LDs interferes with the activity of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), the key lipolytic enzyme in the first step of TG breakdown. Expressing core in livers or mouse embryonic fibroblasts of ATGL^−/− mice no longer decreases TG degradation as observed in LDs from wild-type mice, supporting the model that core reduces lipolysis by engaging ATGL. Core must localize at LDs to inhibit lipolysis, as ex vivo TG hydrolysis is impaired in purified LDs coated with core but not when free core is added to LDs. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments revealed that core does not directly interact with the ATGL complex but, unexpectedly, increased the interaction between ATGL and its activator CGI-58 as well as the recruitment of both proteins to LDs. These data link the anti-lipolytic activity of the HCV core protein with altered ATGL binding to CGI-58 and the enhanced association of both proteins with LDs.     

Hepatitis C Virus Non-structural Protein 3 (HCV NS3): A Multifunctional Antiviral Target

Hepatitis C virus non-structural protein 3 contains a serine protease and an RNA helicase. Protease cleaves the genome-encoded polyprotein and inactivates cellular proteins required for innate immunity. Protease has emerged as an important target for the development of antiviral therapeutics, but drug resistance has turned out to be an obstacle in the clinic. Helicase is required for both genome replication and virus assembly. Mechanistic and structural studies of helicase have hurled this enzyme into a prominent position in the field of helicase enzymology. Nevertheless, studies of helicase as an antiviral target remain in their infancy.     

丙型肝炎病毒基因组C区、NS3区、NS4区基因的融合、表达及初步应用

通过PCR技术从HCV全长基因组中扩增并克隆到Core区、NS4区的部分优势表面抗原肽的基因和C33a基因。再将它们以Core\,CC3c\,NS4的顺序和C33c、NS4的顺序分别拼接融合成融合抗原CCN、CN。片段之间以Gly-Gly-Gly-Gly柔性连接肽连接。经核苷酸序列分析表明,拼接点序列正确。将融合抗原CN、CCN基因分别克隆至T7启动子控制下的表达质粒PET24(a)+,PET22(b)+中,转化至大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)后,经IPTG诱导可高表达分子量约为43kD、58kD的融合抗原,表达产物以包涵体形式存在。表达产物经Ni²⁺IDA亲和柱纯化后,并对融合抗原CN、CCN的抗原性做了初步的鉴定。     

A Protocol for Analyzing Hepatitis C Virus Replication

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) affects 3% of the world’s population and causes serious liver ailments including chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae. Current treatment is not fully effective and causes adverse side effects. There is no HCV vaccine available. Thus, continued effort is required for developing a vaccine and better therapy. An HCV cell culture system is critical for studying various stages of HCV growth including viral entry, genome replication, packaging, and egress. In the current procedure presented, we used a wild-type intragenotype 2a chimeric virus, FNX-HCV, and a recombinant FNX-Rluc virus carrying a Renilla luciferase reporter gene to study the virus replication. A human hepatoma cell line (Huh-7 based) was used for transfection of in vitro transcribed HCV genomic RNAs. Cell-free culture supernatants, protein lysates and total RNA were harvested at various time points post-transfection to assess HCV growth. HCV genome replication status was evaluated by quantitative RT-PCR and visualizing the presence of HCV double-stranded RNA. The HCV protein expression was verified by Western blot and immunofluorescence assays using antibodies specific for HCV NS3 and NS5A proteins. HCV RNA transfected cells released infectious particles into culture supernatant and the viral titer was measured. Luciferase assays were utilized to assess the replication level and infectivity of reporter HCV. In conclusion, we present various virological assays for characterizing different stages of the HCV replication cycle.     

丙型肝炎病毒E2基因DNA 免疫实验动物研究

将编码丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)E2蛋白417～750位氨基酸的DNA片段克隆到真核表达载体pcDNA 3.1(-)中的CMVIE启动子下游,构建成HCV E2重组真核表达质粒pcE2.ELISA法检测pcE2 DNA免疫兔血清中的E2抗体变化和维持规律,结果显示免疫20d已有抗体产生,30d后开始进入高峰,40d时达到最高值,至第90d抗体水平保持平稳,抗体滴度达到11600左右.流式细胞计数仪(FACS)检测pcE2 DNA免疫鼠CD4+、CD8+T淋巴细胞变化情况,与注射空载体pCDNA3.1(-)的阴性鼠相比,CD4+淋巴细胞水平略有上升,CD8+细胞水平有较大升高,增幅达35.46%.免疫组化检测结果显示注射pcE2的小鼠组织中有明显的阳性着色,而注射pcDNA3.1(-)的对照组小鼠免疫组化结果为阴性.以上结果表明pcE2在实验动物内表达出的HCV E2蛋白可以引起免疫动物的体液免疫应答和细胞免疫应答,尤其是MHC-1限制性杀伤性CD8+T淋巴细胞水平的提高对清除病毒是十分有利的,因此HCV E2 DNA免疫有可能成为预防和治疗HCV感染的一条新途径.