Heterologous Src Homology 4 Domains Support Membrane Anchoring and Biological Activity of HIV-1 Nef

The HIV-1 pathogenicity factor Nef enhances viral replication by modulation of multiple host cell transport and signaling pathways. Nef associates with membranes via an N-terminal Src homology 4 (SH4) domain, and membrane association is believed to be essential for its biological functions. At which subcellular site(s) Nef exerts its different functions and how kinetics of membrane interactions contribute to its biological activity are unknown. To address how specific characteristics of Nef membrane association affect its biological properties, the SH4 domain of Nef was replaced by heterologous membrane targeting domains. The use of a panel of heterologous SH4 domains resulted in chimeric Nef proteins with distinct steady state subcellular localization, membrane association efficiency, and anterograde transport routes. Irrespective of these modifications, cardinal Nef functions affecting host cell vesicular transport and actin dynamics were fully preserved. In contrast, stable targeting of Nef to the surface of mitochondria, peroxisomes, or the Golgi apparatus, and thus prevention of plasma membrane delivery, caused potent and broad loss of Nef activity. These results support the concept that Nef adopts its active conformation in the membrane-associated state but exclude that membrane-associated Nef simply acts by recruiting soluble factors independently of its local microenvironment. Rather than its steady state subcellular localization or membrane affinity, the ability to undergo dynamic anterograde and internalization cycles appear to determine Nef function. These results reveal that functional membrane interactions of Nef underlie critical spatiotemporal regulation and suggest that delivery to distinct subcellular sites via such transport cycles provides the basis for the multifunctionality of Nef.     

HIV-1 Protein Nef Inhibits Activity of ATP-binding Cassette Transporter A1 by Targeting Endoplasmic Reticulum Chaperone Calnexin

HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of developing atherosclerosis, in part due to an altered high density lipoprotein profile exacerbated by down-modulation and impairment of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) activity by the HIV-1 protein Nef. However, the mechanisms of this Nef effect remain unknown. Here, we show that Nef interacts with an endoplasmic reticulum chaperone calnexin, which regulates folding and maturation of glycosylated proteins. Nef disrupted interaction between calnexin and ABCA1 but increased affinity and enhanced interaction of calnexin with HIV-1 gp160. The Nef mutant that did not bind to calnexin did not affect the calnexin-ABCA1 interaction. Interaction with calnexin was essential for functionality of ABCA1, as knockdown of calnexin blocked the ABCA1 exit from the endoplasmic reticulum, reduced ABCA1 abundance, and inhibited cholesterol efflux; the same effects were observed after Nef overexpression. However, the effects of calnexin knockdown and Nef on cholesterol efflux were not additive; in fact, the combined effect of these two factors together did not differ significantly from the effect of calnexin knockdown alone. Interestingly, gp160 and ABCA1 interacted with calnexin differently; although gp160 binding to calnexin was dependent on glycosylation, glycosylation was of little importance for the interaction between ABCA1 and calnexin. Thus, Nef regulates the activity of calnexin to stimulate its interaction with gp160 at the expense of ABCA1. This study identifies a mechanism for Nef-dependent inactivation of ABCA1 and dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism.     

Identification of a Novel HIV-1 Inhibitor Targeting Vif-dependent Degradation of Human APOBEC3G Protein

APOBEC3G (A3G) is a cellular cytidine deaminase that restricts HIV-1 replication by inducing G-to-A hypermutation in viral DNA and by deamination-independent mechanisms. HIV-1 Vif binds to A3G, resulting in its degradation via the 26 S proteasome. Therefore, this interaction represents a potential therapeutic target. To identify compounds that inhibit interaction between A3G and HIV-1 Vif in a high throughput format, we developed a homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer assay. A 307,520 compound library from the NIH Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository was screened. Secondary screens to evaluate dose-response performance and off-target effects, cell-based assays to identify compounds that attenuate Vif-dependent degradation of A3G, and assays testing antiviral activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T cells were employed. One compound, N.41, showed potent antiviral activity in A3G(+) but not in A3G(−) T cells and had an IC₅₀ as low as 8.4 μm and a TC₅₀ of >100 μm when tested against HIV-1_Ba-L replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. N.41 inhibited the Vif-A3G interaction and increased cellular A3G levels and incorporation of A3G into virions, thereby attenuating virus infectivity in a Vif-dependent manner. N.41 activity was also species- and Vif-dependent. Preliminary structure-activity relationship studies suggest that a hydroxyl moiety located at a phenylamino group is critical for N.41 anti-HIV activity and identified N.41 analogs with better potency (IC₅₀ as low as 4.2 μm). These findings identify a new lead compound that attenuates HIV replication by liberating A3G from Vif regulation and increasing its innate antiviral activity.     

Antigenicity and Immunogenicity of a Trimeric Envelope Protein from an Indian Clade C HIV-1 Isolate

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) isolates from India mainly belong to clade C and are quite distinct from clade C isolates from Africa in terms of their phylogenetic makeup, serotype, and sensitivity to known human broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies. Because many of these properties are associated with the envelope proteins of HIV-1, it is of interest to study the envelope proteins of Indian clade C isolates as part of the ongoing efforts to develop a vaccine against HIV-1. To this end, we purified trimeric uncleaved gp145 of a CCR5 tropic Indian clade C HIV-1 (93IN101) from the conditioned medium of 293 cells. The purified protein was shown to be properly folded with stable structure by circular dichroism. Conformational integrity was further demonstrated by its high affinity binding to soluble CD4, CD4 binding site antibodies such as b12 and VRC01, quaternary epitope-specific antibody PG9, and CD4-induced epitope-specific antibody 17b. Sera from rabbits immunized with gp145 elicited high titer antibodies to various domains of gp120 and neutralized a broad spectrum of clade B and clade C HIV-1 isolates. Similar to other clade B and clade C envelope immunogens, most of the Tier 1 neutralizing activity could be absorbed with the V3-specific peptide. Subsequent boosting of these rabbits with a clade B HIV-1 Bal gp145 resulted in an expanded breadth of neutralization of HIV-1 isolates. The present study strongly supports the inclusion of envelopes from Indian isolates in a future mixture of HIV-1 vaccines.     

Interleukin 7 Up-regulates CD95 Protein on CD4+ T Cells by Affecting mRNA Alternative Splicing: PRIMING FOR A SYNERGISTIC EFFECT ON HIV-1 RESERVOIR MAINTENANCE*

Interleukin-7 (IL-7) has been used as an immunoregulatory and latency-reversing agent in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Although IL-7 can restore circulating CD4⁺ T cell counts in HIV-1-infected patients, the anti-apoptotic and proliferative effects of IL-7 appear to benefit survival and expansion of HIV-1-latently infected memory CD4⁺ T lymphocytes. IL-7 has been shown to elevate CD95 on CD4⁺ T cells in HIV-1-infected individuals and prime CD4⁺ T lymphocytes to CD95-mediated proliferative or apoptotic signals. Here we observed that through increasing microRNA-124, IL-7 down-regulates the splicing regulator polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB), leading to inclusion of the transmembrane domain-encoding exon 6 of CD95 mRNA and, subsequently, elevation of CD95 on memory CD4⁺ T cells. Moreover, IL-7 up-regulates cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein (c-FLIP) and stimulates c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation, which switches CD95 signaling to survival mode in memory CD4⁺ T lymphocytes. As a result, co-stimulation through IL-7/IL-7R and FasL/CD95 signal pathways augments IL-7-mediated survival and expansion of HIV-1-latently infected memory CD4⁺ T lymphocytes. Collectively, we have demonstrated a novel mechanism for IL-7-mediated maintenance of HIV-1 reservoir.     

ESCRT-0 Protein Hepatocyte Growth Factor-regulated Tyrosine Kinase Substrate (Hrs) Is Targeted to Endosomes Independently of Signal-transducing Adaptor Molecule (STAM) and the Complex Formation with STAM Promotes Its Endosomal Dissociation

The ESCRT-0 complex, consisting of the hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (Hrs) and the signal-transducing adaptor molecule (STAM) proteins, recognizes ubiquitylated cargo during the initial step of endosomal sorting. The endosomal accumulation of overexpressed Hrs has been reported previously to be associated with endosome enlargement. In this study, we have found that co-expressing exogenous STAM1 in Hrs-overexpressing cells leads to a diffuse localization for a large part of the Hrs accumulated on endosomes and a recovery of the impaired cargo protein degradation process, thus suggesting that exogenous STAM abrogates the abnormalities of the Hrs-positive endosomes. A fluorescently labeled Hrs, introduced into the cells by membrane permeabilization, exhibited endosomal localization in the absence of STAM1 and gradually dissociated from the endosomes upon the sequential addition of recombinant STAM1. Furthermore, when microinjected into cells, the fluorescently labeled Hrs also showed endosomal accumulation; however, ESCRT-0 complexes formed prior to the microinjection did not. Analysis of the state of the complex in HeLa cells using blue-native PAGE revealed that the membrane-associated Hrs exists partly as a monomer and not only in the STAM1-bound form. Thus, our data suggest that the membrane binding and dissociation cycle of the ESCRT-0 proteins on the endosomal membrane is a critical step during the cargo sorting process.     

HIV-1 Nef Binds a Subpopulation of MHC-I throughout Its Trafficking Itinerary and Down-regulates MHC-I by Perturbing Both Anterograde and Retrograde Trafficking

The HIV protein Nef is thought to mediate immune evasion and promote viral persistence in part by down-regulating major histocompatibility complex class I protein (MHC-I or HLA-I) from the cell surface. Two different models have been proposed to explain this phenomenon as follows: 1) stimulation of MHC-I retrograde trafficking from and aberrant recycling to the plasma membrane, and 2) inhibition of anterograde trafficking of newly synthesized HLA-I from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane. We show here that Nef simultaneously uses both mechanisms to down-regulate HLA-I in peripheral blood mononuclear cells or HeLa cells. Consistent with this, we found by using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy that a third of diffusing HLA-I at the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi/trans-Golgi network, and the plasma membrane (PM) was associated with Nef. The binding of Nef was similarly avid for native HLA-I and recombinant HLA-I A2 at the PM. Nef binding to HLA-I at the PM was sensitive to specific inhibition of endocytosis. It was also attenuated by cyclodextrin disruption of PM lipid micro-domain architecture, a change that also retarded lateral diffusion and induced large clusters of HLA-I. In all, our data support a model for Nef down-regulation of HLA-I that involves both major trafficking itineraries and persistent protein-protein interactions throughout the cell.     

Microtubule-associated Proteins 1 (MAP1) Promote Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type I (HIV-1) Intracytoplasmic Routing to the Nucleus

After cell entry, HIV undergoes rapid transport toward the nucleus using microtubules and microfilaments. Neither the cellular cytoplasmic components nor the viral proteins that interact to mediate transport have yet been identified. Using a yeast two-hybrid screen, we identified four cytoskeletal components as putative interaction partners for HIV-1 p24 capsid protein: MAP1A, MAP1S, CKAP1, and WIRE. Depletion of MAP1A/MAP1S in indicator cell lines and primary human macrophages led to a profound reduction in HIV-1 infectivity as a result of impaired retrograde trafficking, demonstrated by a characteristic accumulation of capsids away from the nuclear membrane, and an overall defect in nuclear import. MAP1A/MAP1S did not impact microtubule network integrity or cell morphology but contributed to microtubule stabilization, which was shown previously to facilitate infection. In addition, we found that MAP1 proteins interact with HIV-1 cores both in vitro and in infected cells and that interaction involves MAP1 light chain LC2. Depletion of MAP1 proteins reduced the association of HIV-1 capsids with both dynamic and stable microtubules, suggesting that MAP1 proteins help tether incoming viral capsids to the microtubular network, thus promoting cytoplasmic trafficking. This work shows for the first time that following entry into target cells, HIV-1 interacts with the cytoskeleton via its p24 capsid protein. Moreover, our results support a role for MAP1 proteins in promoting efficient retrograde trafficking of HIV-1 by stimulating the formation of stable microtubules and mediating the association of HIV-1 cores with microtubules.     

Biogenesis of Lysosome-related Organelles Complex-1 Subunit 1 (BLOS1) Interacts with Sorting Nexin 2 and the Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport-I (ESCRT-I) Component TSG101 to Mediate the Sorting of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor into Endosomal Compartments

Biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles complex-1 (BLOC-1) is a component of the molecular machinery required for the biogenesis of specialized organelles and lysosomal targeting of cargoes via the endosomal to lysosomal trafficking pathway. BLOS1, one subunit of BLOC-1, is implicated in lysosomal trafficking of membrane proteins. We found that the degradation and trafficking of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were delayed in BLOS1 knockdown cells, which were rescued through BLOS1 overexpression. A key feature to the delayed EGFR degradation is the accumulation of endolysosomes in BLOS1 knockdown cells or BLOS1 knock-out mouse embryonic fibroblasts. BLOS1 interacted with SNX2 (a retromer subunit) and TSG101 (an endosomal sorting complex required for transport subunit-I) to mediate EGFR lysosomal trafficking. These results suggest that coordination of the endolysosomal trafficking proteins is important for proper targeting of EGFR to lysosomes.     

Measuring Glutathione Redox Potential of HIV-1-infected Macrophages

Redox signaling plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1). The majority of HIV redox research relies on measuring redox stress using invasive technologies, which are unreliable and do not provide information about the contributions of subcellular compartments. A major technological leap emerges from the development of genetically encoded redox-sensitive green fluorescent proteins (roGFPs), which provide sensitive and compartment-specific insights into redox homeostasis. Here, we exploited a roGFP-based specific bioprobe of glutathione redox potential (E_GSH; Grx1-roGFP2) and measured subcellular changes in E_GSH during various phases of HIV-1 infection using U1 monocytic cells (latently infected U937 cells with HIV-1). We show that although U937 and U1 cells demonstrate significantly reduced cytosolic and mitochondrial E_GSH (approximately −310 mV), active viral replication induces substantial oxidative stress (E_GSH more than −240 mV). Furthermore, exposure to a physiologically relevant oxidant, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), induces significant deviations in subcellular E_GSH between U937 and U1, which distinctly modulates susceptibility to apoptosis. Using Grx1-roGFP2, we demonstrate that a marginal increase of about ∼25 mV in E_GSH is sufficient to switch HIV-1 from latency to reactivation, raising the possibility of purging HIV-1 by redox modulators without triggering detrimental changes in cellular physiology. Importantly, we show that bioactive lipids synthesized by clinical drug-resistant isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis reactivate HIV-1 through modulation of intracellular E_GSH. Finally, the expression analysis of U1 and patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated a major recalibration of cellular redox homeostatic pathways during persistence and active replication of HIV.     

Membrane Anchoring by a C-terminal Tryptophan Enables HIV-1 Vpu to Displace Bone Marrow Stromal Antigen 2 (BST2) from Sites of Viral Assembly

The restriction factor BST2 (tetherin) prevents the release of enveloped viruses from the host cell and is counteracted by HIV-1 Vpu. Vpu and BST2 interact directly via their transmembrane domains. This interaction enables Vpu to induce the surface down-regulation and the degradation of BST2, but neither of these activities fully accounts for the ability of Vpu to enhance virion release. During a study of naturally occurring Vpu proteins, we found that a tryptophan residue near the Vpu C terminus is particularly important for enhancing virion release. Vpu proteins with a W76G polymorphism degraded and down-regulated BST2 from the cell surface, yet they inefficiently stimulated virion release. Here we explore the mechanism of this anomaly. We find that Trp-76 is critical for the ability of Vpu to displace BST2 from sites of viral assembly in the plane of the plasma membrane. This effect does not appear to involve a general reorganization of the membrane microdomains associated with virion assembly, but rather is a specific effect of Vpu on BST2. Using NMR spectroscopy, we find that the cytoplasmic domain of Vpu and Trp-76 specifically interact with lipids. Moreover, paramagnetic relaxation enhancement studies show that Trp-76 inserts into the lipid. These data are consistent with a model whereby Trp-76 anchors the C terminus of the cytoplasmic tail of Vpu to the plasma membrane, enabling the movement of Vpu-bound BST2 away from viral assembly sites.     

Prevalence and Gene Characteristics of Antibodies with Cofactor-induced HIV-1 Specificity

The healthy immune repertoire contains a fraction of antibodies that bind to various biologically relevant cofactors, including heme. Interaction of heme with some antibodies results in induction of new antigen binding specificities and acquisition of binding polyreactivity. In vivo, extracellular heme is released as a result of hemolysis or tissue damage; hence the post-translational acquisition of novel antigen specificities might play an important role in the diversification of the immunoglobulin repertoire and host defense. Here, we demonstrate that seronegative immune repertoires contain antibodies that gain reactivity to HIV-1 gp120 upon exposure to heme. Furthermore, a panel of human recombinant antibodies was cloned from different B cell subpopulations, and the prevalence of antibodies with cofactor-induced specificity for gp120 was determined. Our data reveal that upon exposure to heme, ∼24% of antibodies acquired binding specificity for divergent strains of HIV-1 gp120. Sequence analyses reveal that heme-sensitive antibodies do not differ in their repertoire of variable region genes and in most of the molecular features of their antigen-binding sites from antibodies that do not change their antigen binding specificity. However, antibodies with cofactor-induced gp120 specificity possess significantly lower numbers of somatic mutations in their variable region genes. This study contributes to the understanding of the significance of cofactor-binding antibodies in immunoglobulin repertoires and of the influence that the tissue microenvironment might have in shaping adaptive immune responses.     

A Critical Role of the C-terminal Segment for Allosteric Inhibitor-induced Aberrant Multimerization of HIV-1 Integrase

Allosteric HIV-1 integrase (IN) inhibitors (ALLINIs) are a promising class of antiretroviral agents for clinical development. Although ALLINIs promote aberrant IN multimerization and inhibit IN interaction with its cellular cofactor LEDGF/p75 with comparable potencies in vitro, their primary mechanism of action in infected cells is through inducing aberrant multimerization of IN. Crystal structures have shown that ALLINIs bind at the IN catalytic core domain dimer interface and bridge two interacting subunits. However, how these interactions promote higher-order protein multimerization is not clear. Here, we used mass spectrometry-based protein footprinting to monitor surface topology changes in full-length WT and the drug-resistant A128T mutant INs in the presence of ALLINI-2. These experiments have identified protein-protein interactions that extend beyond the direct inhibitor binding site and which lead to aberrant multimerization of WT but not A128T IN. Specifically, we demonstrate that C-terminal residues Lys-264 and Lys-266 play an important role in the inhibitor induced aberrant multimerization of the WT protein. Our findings provide structural clues for exploiting IN multimerization as a new, attractive therapeutic target and are expected to facilitate development of improved inhibitors.     

Regulation of Protease-activated Receptor 1 Signaling by the Adaptor Protein Complex 2 and R4 Subfamily of Regulator of G Protein Signaling Proteins

The G protein-coupled protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) is irreversibly proteolytically activated by thrombin. Hence, the precise regulation of PAR1 signaling is important for proper cellular responses. In addition to desensitization, internalization and lysosomal sorting of activated PAR1 are critical for the termination of signaling. Unlike most G protein-coupled receptors, PAR1 internalization is mediated by the clathrin adaptor protein complex 2 (AP-2) and epsin-1, rather than β-arrestins. However, the function of AP-2 and epsin-1 in the regulation of PAR1 signaling is not known. Here, we report that AP-2, and not epsin-1, regulates activated PAR1-stimulated phosphoinositide hydrolysis via two different mechanisms that involve, in part, a subset of R4 subfamily of “regulator of G protein signaling” (RGS) proteins. A significantly greater increase in activated PAR1 signaling was observed in cells depleted of AP-2 using siRNA or in cells expressing a PAR1 ⁴²⁰AKKAA⁴²⁴ mutant with defective AP-2 binding. This effect was attributed to AP-2 modulation of PAR1 surface expression and efficiency of G protein coupling. We further found that ectopic expression of R4 subfamily members RGS2, RGS3, RGS4, and RGS5 reduced activated PAR1 wild-type signaling, whereas signaling by the PAR1 AKKAA mutant was minimally affected. Intriguingly, siRNA-mediated depletion analysis revealed a function for RGS5 in the regulation of signaling by the PAR1 wild type but not the AKKAA mutant. Moreover, activation of the PAR1 wild type, and not the AKKAA mutant, induced Gα_q association with RGS3 via an AP-2-dependent mechanism. Thus, AP-2 regulates activated PAR1 signaling by altering receptor surface expression and through recruitment of RGS proteins.     

Identification of a Lysosomal Pathway Regulating Degradation of the Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptor Type II

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are critically involved in early development and cell differentiation. In humans, dysfunction of the bone morphogenetic protein type II receptor (BMPR-II) is associated with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and neoplasia. The ability of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), the etiologic agent of Kaposi sarcoma and primary effusion lymphoma, to down-regulate cell surface receptor expression is well documented. Here we show that KSHV infection reduces cell surface BMPR-II. We propose that this occurs through the expression of the viral lytic gene, K5, a ubiquitin E3 ligase. Ectopic expression of K5 leads to BMPR-II ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation with a consequent decrease in BMP signaling. The down-regulation by K5 is dependent on both its RING domain and a membrane-proximal lysine in the cytoplasmic domain of BMPR-II. We demonstrate that expression of BMPR-II protein is constitutively regulated by lysosomal degradation in vascular cells and provide preliminary evidence for the involvement of the mammalian E3 ligase, Itch, in the constitutive degradation of BMPR-II. Disruption of BMP signaling may therefore play a role in the pathobiology of diseases caused by KSHV infection, as well as KSHV-associated tumorigenesis and vascular disease.     

Deficiency of Sphingosine-1-phosphate Lyase Impairs Lysosomal Metabolism of the Amyloid Precursor Protein

Progressive accumulation of the amyloid β protein in extracellular plaques is a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer disease. Amyloid β is generated during sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretases. In addition to the proteolytic processing by secretases, APP is also metabolized by lysosomal proteases. Here, we show that accumulation of intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) impairs the metabolism of APP. Cells lacking functional S1P-lyase, which degrades intracellular S1P, strongly accumulate full-length APP and its potentially amyloidogenic C-terminal fragments (CTFs) as compared with cells expressing the functional enzyme. By cell biological and biochemical methods, we demonstrate that intracellular inhibition of S1P-lyase impairs the degradation of APP and CTFs in lysosomal compartments and also decreases the activity of γ-secretase. Interestingly, the strong accumulation of APP and CTFs in S1P-lyase-deficient cells was reversed by selective mobilization of Ca²⁺ from the endoplasmic reticulum or lysosomes. Intracellular accumulation of S1P also impairs maturation of cathepsin D and degradation of Lamp-2, indicating a general impairment of lysosomal activity. Together, these data demonstrate that S1P-lyase plays a critical role in the regulation of lysosomal activity and the metabolism of APP.     

Mechanism of Multivalent Nanoparticle Encounter with HIV-1 for Potency Enhancement of Peptide Triazole Virus Inactivation

Entry of HIV-1 into host cells remains a compelling yet elusive target for developing agents to prevent infection. A peptide triazole (PT) class of entry inhibitor has previously been shown to bind to HIV-1 gp120, suppress interactions of the Env protein at host cell receptor binding sites, inhibit cell infection, and cause envelope spike protein breakdown, including gp120 shedding and, for some variants, virus membrane lysis. We found that gold nanoparticle-conjugated forms of peptide triazoles (AuNP-PT) exhibit substantially more potent antiviral effects against HIV-1 than corresponding peptide triazoles alone. Here, we sought to reveal the mechanism of potency enhancement underlying nanoparticle conjugate function. We found that altering the physical properties of the nanoparticle conjugate, by increasing the AuNP diameter and/or the density of PT conjugated on the AuNP surface, enhanced potency of infection inhibition to impressive picomolar levels. Further, compared with unconjugated PT, AuNP-PT was less susceptible to reduction of antiviral potency when the density of PT-competent Env spikes on the virus was reduced by incorporating a peptide-resistant mutant gp120. We conclude that potency enhancement of virolytic activity and corresponding irreversible HIV-1 inactivation of PTs upon AuNP conjugation derives from multivalent contact between the nanoconjugates and metastable Env spikes on the HIV-1 virus. The findings reveal that multispike engagement can exploit the metastability built into virus the envelope to irreversibly inactivate HIV-1 and provide a conceptual platform to design nanoparticle-based antiviral agents for HIV-1 specifically and putatively for metastable enveloped viruses generally.