Flax in Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece: archaeobotanical evidence

This paper presents an overview of archaeobotanical finds of Linum usitatissimum from Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece, bringing together published records of this plant as well as some recently retrieved, unpublished finds. In addition, charred flax seed concentrations from five prehistoric sites from the region of Macedonia in northern Greece, are examined in detail. The Neolithic sites are Makriyalos, Mandalo, Arkadikos, Dikili Tash, dated to the Late and Final Neolithic and Archondiko, dated to the end of the Early Bronze Age. Archaeobotanical composition and contextual information are used in order to explore the cultivation and potential uses of flax at each site. By the 5th millennium b.c. a flax weed flora had probably developed in the region. The use of flax seed for oil extraction and flax stems for flax fibre preparation can only be speculated upon and these uses are discussed within the context of other archaeological finds related to plant oil production and weaving. It is also possible that flax may have been used for medicinal purposes. Despite a striking paucity in archaeobotanical remains from southern Greece, textual evidence available from the Mycenean palace archives in Linear B clearly documents the cultivation of flax and flax fibre production.     

Functional interpretation of archaeobotanical data: Making hay in the archaeological record

Hay malting and hay meadows have long been of fundamental ecological, economic and social importance in temperate Europe. A variety of archaeological sources suggests that hay making may date back to the Iron Age, but direct archaeobotanical evidence for this practice is problematic. Past grassland communities are imperfectly represented and preserved in archaeobotanical assemblages, and ancient meadow and pasture communities may not resemble present-day communities in terms of management practices or botanical composition. This paper explores the potential of FIBS (Functional Interpretation of Botanical Surveys) in the archaeobotanical investigation of ancient grassland management. The botanical composition of present-day grassland communities was analysed in terms of functional attributes (e.g. canopy height) relevant to cutting, grazing and habitat productivity. The utility of these attributes for distinguishing between present-day meadow, pasture and unmanaged grassland communities has been evaluated. Similar analyses were performed on archaeobotanical data from Neolithic to post-Medieval northwestern and central Europe. Functional shifts over time, interpreted in the light of the functional analysis of modern grassland, suggest that hay-making was well established by the Iron Age. Avenues are suggested for the refinement and further development of the FIBS methodology in the archaeobotanical investigation of grassland management.     

A critical review of the protracted domestication model for Near-Eastern founder crops: linear regression, long-distance gene flow, archaeological, and archaeobotanical evidence

The recent review by Fuller et al. (2012a) in this journal is part of a series of papers maintaining that plant domestication in the Near East was a slow process lasting circa 4000?years and occurring independently in different locations across the Fertile Crescent. Their protracted domestication scenario is based entirely on linear regression derived from the percentage of domesticated plant remains at specific archaeological sites and the age of these sites themselves. This paper discusses why estimates like haldanes and darwins cannot be applied to the seven founder crops in the Near East (einkorn and emmer wheat, barley, peas, chickpeas, lentils, and bitter vetch). All of these crops are self-fertilizing plants and for this reason they do not fulfil the requirements for performing calculations of this kind. In addition, the percentage of domesticates at any site may be the result of factors other than those that affect the selection for domesticates growing in the surrounding area. These factors are unlikely to have been similar across prehistoric sites of habitation, societies, and millennia. The conclusion here is that single crop analyses are necessary rather than general reviews drawing on regression analyses based on erroneous assumptions. The fact that all seven of these founder crops are self-fertilizers should be incorporated into a comprehensive domestication scenario for the Near East, as self-fertilization naturally isolates domesticates from their wild progenitors.     

Changes in cereal cultivation during the Iron Age in southern Sweden: a compilation and interpretation of the archaeobotanical material

Macrofossil data from 73 sites dating to the south Swedish Iron Age (500 b.c.–a.d. 1100) have been compiled and analyzed in order to elucidate long term changes in cereal cultivation. The analyses indicate that “permanent field” agriculture was established at the end of the Bronze Age utilizing Hordeum vulgare var vulgare as a primary crop and Triticum aestivum ssp vulgare/compactum, Triticum spelta/dicoccum/monococcum, Avena sativa and Secale cereale as secondary crops. An observed change towards the end of Roman Iron Age (1–a.d. 400) is the expansion of Secale cereale and Avena sativa cultivation. Evidence also suggests that winter sowing of the former commenced at the latest during the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries a.d. The introduction of winter sowing possibly coincided with the establishment of crop rotation agriculture. During most of the Iron Age southern Sweden displays significant regional variations with regards to cereal cultivation practice. There is however evidence that a more homogenous agriculture appeared across the investigated area from the beginning of the Viking Age (a.d. 800–1100) onwards.     

More than meets the eye: new archaeobotanical evidence on Bronze Age viticulture and wine making in the Peloponnese,Greece

Vegetation History and Archaeobotany - Viticulture and wine making have been at the heart of discussions concerning the Mycenaean society with elite groups which emerged in the Mediterranean during...     

Pre-agricultural plant management in the uplands of the central Zagros: the archaeobotanical evidence from Sheikh-e Abad

Prior to the emergence of agriculture in southwest Asia, increasingly sedentary human communities were experimenting with a diverse range of wild plants over a prolonged period. In some cases, this involved the cultivation of taxa that would go on to be domesticated and form the foundation of future agricultural economies. However, many forms of plant use did not follow this trajectory, and in multiple places farming was only taken up later as an established ‘package’ of crops and management practices. In this paper, we present new archaeobotanical evidence from the Early Neolithic site of Sheikh-e Abad in the central Zagros mountains of western Iran. Sheikh-e Abad is unique in being the only settlement known to date within southwest Asia that lies at an altitude above 1,000 m and which has occupation spanning the agricultural transition (9800–7600 bc). Thus, it provides a rare opportunity to examine pre-agricultural plant management strategies in an upland zone. Our analyses of the plant remains from Sheikh-e Abad suggest that from its earliest occupation the site’s inhabitants were ‘auditioning’ a group of locally available wild grasses, which ultimately were never domesticated. We discuss the possible reasons for this from a socio-ecological perspective, considering both the biology and ecology of the plant species in question, as well as the ways in which they were potentially managed.     

An investigation of processing and consumption of pulses among prehistoric societies: archaeobotanical, experimental and ethnographic evidence from Greece

Pulses have constituted an important food source for prehistoric communities in the Old World, yet little is known as regards their processing for consumption through the archaeobotanical record. This paper provides an overview of archaeobotanical evidence for the use of pulses in prehistoric Greece based on two case studies from the north, and explores (a) their preparation for consumption, in particular their detoxification and (b) the consumption of pulses as a component of ordinary daily meals in prehistoric times, as well as those for special occasions, within a context of feasting and ritual. The paper examines charred remains of Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch) and Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) from early Bronze Age Agios Athanasios and late Neolithic Kremasti Koiladas, respectively, as the former provides a basis for a pilot exploration of pulse detoxification and the latter, due to its origin, offers a rare opportunity to discuss the context of consumption. In the pilot exploration of pulse seed preparation for consumption, the inner cotyledon morphology of modern V. ervilia seeds which were experimentally processed with water and pounding was examined macroscopically and through SEM micrographs. Preliminary observations suggest that intentional splitting of pulse seeds as part of processing for consumption as food may be recognisable in the archaeobotanical record. Processing with water may also be detected. The particular context of the Kremasti finds suggests that pulses, in this particular case L. sativus, may have constituted special foods for particular occasions, loaded with symbolic meaning.     

Flax and weld: archaeobotanical records from Mutina (Emilia Romagna, Northern Italy), dated to the Imperial Age, first half 1st century a.d.

In the city centre of Modena (Emilia Romagna, Northern Italy) a noteworthy amount of carpological remains attributable to flax and weld came to light dated to the Imperial Age (first half 1st century a.d.). Flax remains, i.e. capsules and extremely small seeds, suggest the presence of either immature seeds and fruits of cultivated flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) or of a wild flax species (Linum bienne Mill.). The quantity of these remains along with the co-presence of seeds of Reseda luteola, an important dye plant, leads to the hypothesis of the cultivation of both flax and weld for textile manufacturing purposes, which are attested as important in the economy of the Roman period.     

Spawning of bluefin tuna in the black sea: historical evidence, environmental constraints and population plasticity

The lucrative and highly migratory Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus (Linnaeus 1758; Scombridae), used to be distributed widely throughout the north Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Its migrations have supported sustainable fisheries and impacted local cultures since antiquity, but its biogeographic range has contracted since the 1950s. Most recently, the species disappeared from the Black Sea in the late 1980s and has not yet recovered. Reasons for the Black Sea disappearance, and the species-wide range contraction, are unclear. However bluefin tuna formerly foraged and possibly spawned in the Black Sea. Loss of a locally-reproducing population would represent a decline in population richness, and an increase in species vulnerability to perturbations such as exploitation and environmental change. Here we identify the main genetic and phenotypic adaptations that the population must have (had) in order to reproduce successfully in the specific hydrographic (estuarine) conditions of the Black Sea. By comparing hydrographic conditions in spawning areas of the three species of bluefin tunas, and applying a mechanistic model of egg buoyancy and sinking rate, we show that reproduction in the Black Sea must have required specific adaptations of egg buoyancy, fertilisation and development for reproductive success. Such adaptations by local populations of marine fish species spawning in estuarine areas are common as is evident from a meta-analysis of egg buoyancy data from 16 species of fish. We conclude that these adaptations would have been necessary for successful local reproduction by bluefin tuna in the Black Sea, and that a locally-adapted reproducing population may have disappeared. Recovery of bluefin tuna in the Black Sea, either for spawning or foraging, will occur fastest if any remaining locally adapted individuals are allowed to survive, and by conservation and recovery of depleted Mediterranean populations which could through time re-establish local Black Sea spawning and foraging.     

The history of crops and crop weeds in south-western Germany from the Neolithic period to modern times, as shown by archaeobotanical evidence

The results of more than 100 archaeobotanical investigations from south-western Germany have been arranged into chronological groups and analyzed with a spreadsheet to obtain presence data and the numbers of taxa present in the various time periods. They show an increase in the number of plant taxa cultivated in gardens since the Roman period, a decrease in the crops that were the earliest to be cultivated, especially emmer, and an increase of spelt, rye and oats in the course of time. New crop weeds appear, including an increasing number of southern plants originating from open vegetation. This is more likely to be a result of the intensification of agriculture than from increased human mobility. The crop weeds, grouped together according to their requirements for soil nutrients, show increasing soil acidification through the course of time.     

Prehistoric populations of the island of Hvar--an overview of archaeological evidence

Prehistory of the island of Hvar was marked much more by continuity than by change. Only at one point during that long period, evidence clearly suggests arrival of a substantial body of immigrants. That event took place around 6,000 BC, and is associated with the introduction of farming. The next possible influx of immigrants may have happened around or soon after 2,500 BC, but the changes observable in the archaeological record are better explained by indigenous developments such as changes in the social organization of the local communities. By mid-first millennium BC, Hvar was populated by Illyrians who spoke an Indo-European language. It was then that the next confirmed penetration of a foreign population took place, with the establishment of Greek colonies. Four centuries later, Hvar was fully integrated into the Roman Empire.     

Co-infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae in human archaeological samples: a possible explanation for the historical decline of leprosy

Both leprosy and tuberculosis were prevalent in Europe during the first millennium but thereafter leprosy declined. It is not known why this occurred, but one suggestion is that cross-immunity protected tuberculosis patients from leprosy. To investigate any relationship between the two diseases, selected archaeological samples, dating from the Roman period to the thirteenth century, were examined for both Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA, using PCR. The work was carried out and verified in geographically separate and independent laboratories. Several specimens with palaeopathological signs of leprosy were found to contain DNA from both pathogens, indicating that these diseases coexisted in the past. We suggest that the immunological changes found in multi-bacillary leprosy, in association with the socio-economic impact on those suffering from the disease, led to increased mortality from tuberculosis and therefore to the historical decline in leprosy.     

Flax seed production: evidence from the early Iron Age site of Tel Beth-Shean, Israel and from written sources

For thousands of years, flax was a winter crop of major importance in the ancient Levant, second only to wheat and barley. It was cultivated from the beginning of the early Neolithic period through to Roman times and it is still grown there today. Flax seeds (linseed) contain high concentrations of two essential polyunsaturated fatty acids—linoleic acid (ω-6) and α-linolenic acid (ω-3), which cannot be produced by the human body. Their oxidation occurs rapidly in the air. So, long term storage of linseed needed airtight containers, and tightly stoppered bottles could be used to keep its oil as a remedy. However, were flax seeds consumed as a food, oil or medicament in ancient periods? How commonly were flax seeds eaten? From archaeobotanical finds of flax seed, it is difficult to determine whether the flax was cultivated for fibres alone or for its seeds that can be cold-pressed to release the valuable oil. We have therefore studied ancient written documents describing various uses of flax seeds, including their consumption as a food supplement and uses in medical applications. We conclude that until recently flax was grown primarily for textile fibres, and only smaller quantities of flax seeds were consumed. So, the flax seed finds from the early Iron Age site of Tel Beth-Shean also represent seed consumption or oil extraction.     

Carthamus species in the ancient Near East and south-eastern Europe: archaeobotanical evidence for their distribution and use as a source of oil

We present an overview of archaeobotanical Carthamus spp. finds from Neolithic to medieval sites in the Near East and adjacent areas. A particular focus is put on the cultivated form of the genus. Safflower appears first in a number of early Bronze Age (3000 b.c.) sites in northern and central Syria. From there it apparently spread to Egypt, the Aegean and south-eastern Europe. The Near Eastern Bronze Age evidence shows a striking exclusiveness in the distribution patterns of safflower and flax, with flax being restricted to Levantine and Iranian sites. This may reflect the contrasting ecological requirements of the two crops, with safflower being well adapted to drought and salinity and thus to arid conditions. At the same time the geographically complementary evidence may indicate a similar use of the two crops and most probably suggests that the safflower was also used for oil almost from the beginning of its cultivation. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Subfossil chironomids as evidence of eutrophication in Ekoln Bay,Central Sweden

The role played by heterotrophic microplankton in the synthesis and flux of organic matter was studied in the Punta San Juan Coastal upwelling region off Peru in April and May 1977. The data from a drogue study show that the main component of the planktonic community in the freshly upwelled water is the microheterotroph component. The biomass of bacteria (49 mg C/ m³) in the newly upwelled water exceeded by two orders of magnitude the biomass of phytoplankton. Total respiration of the microheterotrophs (3.35 g C/ m²/ day) exceeded by three-fold the primary production, indicating that the heterotrophic respiration was dependent on the content of organic matter preexisting in the upwelling waters. In the upwelling at Punta San Juan the biomass of protozoa was 1 g/ m³ (wet weight) at the depth of the maximum concentration; this concentration is the highest ever observed in sea water. During transects on a section normal to the coastline an abundant population of dinoflagellates (5 to 40 × 10³ /1) of the genera Gymnodinium and Prorocentrum were found in anoxic waters at 50 to 100 m. Strong red tide water coloration was observed as a result of a bloom of the autotrophic ciliate Mesodinium rubrum; the biomass of the ciliate at the surface in calm weather reached 50 to 70 g/ m³ (wet weight) and the cell density was 2 to 4 × 10⁶/l.     

Dating archaeobotanical remains: a cautionary tale from Port au Choix,Newfoundland

In this paper we report on the first ¹⁴C dated archaeological seeds from the island of Newfoundland, Canada. Ninety-three archaeobotanical specimens were recovered from a midden deposit adjacent to a small dwelling at Point Riche (EeBi-20), a large Dorset Palaeoeskimo site near Port au Choix, northwestern Newfoundland. These remains were collected from a seemingly secure context within the midden, but AMS ¹⁴C testing of a sample of specimens produced modern ¹⁴C dates, indicating that the remains are intrusive to the Dorset occupation. While the majority of Newfoundland-based research assumes antiquity of archaeobotanical remains, we recommend using AMS ¹⁴C dating and other proxy data in future archaeobotanical studies to confirm antiquity prior to making interpretations regarding human–plant interactions.     

Latitudinal shifts in mangrove species worldwide: evidence from historical occurrence records

Consequences of global climate change on mangrove habitats are ambiguous owing to multifaceted factors. In this study, we examined historical occurrences of ten common mangrove species and quantified the rate of latitudinal shift as a possible response to climate change. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) was used to gather occurrence of mangrove species. We found that nine of ten species have been shifting poleward since the 1950s. Overall mean latitudinal shift rates of mangrove species were significantly higher in Australia than in North America (1.7 and 1.3 latitude degrees per decade, respectively). In Australia, mean temperature and precipitation of localities decreased as mangrove species shifted towards drier regions at higher latitudes. However, in North America and West Africa, mean temperature of localities seems relatively stable, whereas precipitation slightly decreased. We provide new quantitative information on shifts in occurrence of common mangrove species worldwide under a changing climate. We confirm the poleward movement of mangrove species over the past 70 years and suggest that local mean temperature and precipitation can act as key drivers of mangrove range shifts. We also advise that poleward latitudinal shifts in mangrove species should be taken into account when establishing new nature reserves.

     

Kaletepe Deresi 3 (Turkey): archaeological evidence for early human settlement in Central Anatolia

Located in the Central Anatolian Volcanic Province, Kaletepe Deresi 3 was discovered in the summer of 2000 and has been under investigation since that time. Volcanic activity in the region generated a number of obsidian intrusions that have attracted humans to the area throughout prehistory. The stratigraphic sequence at Kaletepe Deresi 3, more than 7 m in depth, presents a series of archaeological horizons representing the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. The site contains the longest open-air Paleolithic sequence excavated in Turkey, as well as the first in situ Acheulean industry documented in Anatolia. Tephras in the upper Middle Paleolithic horizons and the rhyolithic bedrock bracket the timespan represented at Kaletepe Deresi 3. The lithic industry at the site illustrates a wide range of technological behaviors and documents changes in raw-material exploitation and artifact manufacture through the Lower and Middle Paleolithic.     

Primary domestication and early uses of the emblematic olive tree: palaeobotanical, historical and molecular evidence from the Middle East

Our knowledge of the origins of olive tree domestication in the Middle East and on the processes governing its extension and persistence in different vegetation types from prehistory through antiquity to modern times derives from diverse sources, spanning the biological sciences to the humanities. Nonetheless, it lacks a robust overview that may lead to floating interpretations. This is especially true in the Middle East, considered as the cradle of agriculture, and where the evolutionary history of this emblematic tree is intertwined with that of civilizations. Olive fruit, oil and wood have been, since Prehistoric times, characteristic products of the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. In the domestic economy of these countries, the olive tree gradually became a traditional tree crop since the first oil extraction, through the emergence of regional commerce that accompanied the rise and fall of early Near-Middle Eastern urbanism, until the development of modern trade, with an oil production estimated at circa 3000000 tons per year. The rising importance of the olive tree in human life has turned the tree into an endless source of fascination in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean, a symbol and a sacred tree, widely cited in the Bibles, the Koran, and in ancient literature. Here we argue that advances in radiocarbon chronology, palaeobotany, genetics, and archaeology-history have profoundly refined the history of olive trees in the Middle East. This review shows that the heartland of primary olive domestication must be enlarged to the Levant and not only focus on the Jordan Valley. The domestication of the olive tree is a long and ongoing process, linked to the early production of oil and the development of the olive trade. We also suggest that the olive tree became a particular icon, a sacred tree, during the Biblical period in the Levant.