Mice recognize recent urine scent marks by the molecular composition

Male mice mark the territory with urine scent marks that are frequently renewed to maintain the territory ownership. We measured the response of male mice to small spots of urine deposed either 0, 5, 11, 22, 45, 90 min, or 24 h before testing and show that mice loose interest in sniffing scent marks as they become older and older. We asked what scent features tell a mouse how recent a scent mark is, and therefore, we studied the molecule-to-behavior relationship by correlating 6 behavioral variables--the number of sniffing acts, the latency to the first sniff, the number of urine marks, the latency to the first mark, the area of the marks, and the number of fecal pellets-to 2,4-dehydro-exo-brevicomin, linalool, 2-sec-butyl-4,5-dihydrothiazole, 2,4-dimethylphenol, 4-ethylphenol, and 6,10-dimethyl-5,9-undecadien-2-one released from urine spots over the time, identified, and quantified by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Canonical correlation between the molecular and the behavioral principal components was strong (R(1) = 0.96, P = 0.026). The principal component based on 2,4-dehydro-exo-brevicomin, linalool, and 2-sec-butyl-4,5-dihydrothiazole correlated negatively with countermarking and positively with the sniffing behavior, suggesting a semantic feature of fresh male mouse urine.     

Flehmen: Its occurrence and possible functions in feral goats

Flehmen is a behaviour characterized by an open mouth and the upper lip curled back and up. It is given by feral goats of both sexes. Males give flehmen most often in response to the urine of females, but also to their own urine and to the urine of other males. Females give flehmen and a related behaviour, riech-gähnen, after sniffing their own and unrelated neonates. Flehmen in the feral goat may function in the olfaction of a number of compounds, enabling males to assess oestrus in females and the relative condition of other males, and females to differentiate between their own and unrelated neonates. Two functional classes can be recognized: monitoring processes, involving regular, frequent testing, and discriminatory learning processes, involving relatively rare decision-making. It is emphasized that the relative frequency of flehmen in different contexts may not reflect its biological significance.     

Correlation of flehmen by male sheep with female behaviour and oestrus

Flehmen by rams occurred after the ram sniffed urine voided by the female but each flehmen was very variable in both duration (range 1–34s) and intensity. The duration of each flehmen was not affected by the stage of the oestrous cycle of the female. Flehmen to urine occurred least often in the presence of the oestrous ewe due to the low occurrence of marking behaviour by the female at this time. Flehmen also occurred after the ram investigated the vulva of the ewe but such flehmens were always short (range 1–8 s). Again the duration of each flehmen was not greatly influenced by the reproductive state of the female. Flehmen following investigation of the vulva occurred most frequently on the day before oestrus. These observations support the hypothesis that flehmen by the ram is an olfactory mechanism for confirming the reproductive state of the ewe. The pheromone detected by flehmen appears to be produced in the vagina and carried in the urine.     

Marked Point Process: Using Correlation Functions to Explore a Spatial Data Set

The relationship between the locations of the clumps of sprouts, some morphological characteristics of the clumps and the local soil environment in an old sweet chestnut coppice are studied. The theory of marked point process, which has not yet been used extensively in forestry studies, is shown to be adequate for the analysis of this type of spatial data. The marks correspond to morphological characteristics of the clumps: “diameter”, “number of sprouts”, “height at one year”, and “height at three years”. Several covariance functions are described which give a method for exploring the spatial relationships within the stand. Some of these functions are introduced for the first time in an actual statistical analysis. By using these functions, it is shown that the clumps are regularly distributed. The variables “diameter” and “number of sprouts” are strongly spatially negatively correlated, whereas the heights are slightly or not correlated. By categorising the individuals according to the mark values, it is shown that the small clumps tended to be aggregated in the gaps between medium and large clumps. Values of heights in the ties of the distribution are related as well as their spatial correlation to the local soil environment.     

THREE TYPES OF PHEROMONES IN THE DOMESTIC RABBIT, ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS (L)

Differences in frequency and duration of sniffing and chinningreactions make it feasible that male domestic rabbits are ableto discriminate between objects with and without secretion ofthe submandibular cutaneous chin gland. They also react differentlyto their own chin gland secretion as compared with that of othermales. Rabbits discriminate clearly between faecal pellets and placebos,own and strange pellets, and fresh and old ones. Pellets producedin the individual home cages appear to be less interesting thanthose put down in a room simulating a group territory. Reactionsto own, strange, old and fresh urine indicate a function inthe olfactory communication for urine as well. Higher values of frequencies for sniffing and chinning pheromonecarriers appeared to be due to more repetitions of these alternatingbehaviours within an encounter with a scent carrier rather thanto more returns to it. Qualitatively different sniffing behaviour with respect to pheromoneswas also found.     

Role of dihydrotestosterone in the control of sexual behaviour on castrated male sheep

Wethers (at least 2 1/2 years after castration) were implanted with testosterone propionate (TP), oestradiol dipropionate (ODP), dihydrotestosterone, or a combination of dihydrotestosterone and ODP Silastic capsules. Active immunization against both oestradiol and oestrone or oestradiol only was used to negate effects of oestrogens produced by aromatization of TP. On exposure to oestrous ewes, immunization of wethers implanted with TP significantly (P less than 0.01) reduced all components of mating behaviour (except sniffing and Flehmen) to levels seen in untreated controls. The results support the conclusion that dihydrotestosterone potentiates the action of oestrogens, particularly as regards Flehmen, and has no action on its own within the central nervous system, while oestrogens do not restore mating activity to the same level as that following treatment with testosterone.     

multimark: an R package for analysis of capture–recapture data consisting of multiple “noninvasive” marks

I describe an open‐source R package, multimark , for estimation of survival and abundance from capture–mark–recapture data consisting of multiple “noninvasive” marks. Noninvasive marks include natural pelt or skin patterns, scars, and genetic markers that enable individual identification in lieu of physical capture. multimark provides a means for combining and jointly analyzing encounter histories from multiple noninvasive sources that otherwise cannot be reliably matched (e.g., left‐ and right‐sided photographs of bilaterally asymmetrical individuals). The package is currently capable of fitting open population Cormack–Jolly–Seber (CJS) and closed population abundance models with up to two mark types using Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. multimark can also be used for Bayesian analyses of conventional capture–recapture data consisting of a single‐mark type. Some package features include (1) general model specification using formulas already familiar to most R users, (2) ability to include temporal, behavioral, age, cohort, and individual heterogeneity effects in detection and survival probabilities, (3) improved MCMC algorithm that is computationally faster and more efficient than previously proposed methods, (4) Bayesian multimodel inference using reversible jump MCMC, and (5) data simulation capabilities for power analyses and assessing model performance. I demonstrate use of multimark using left‐ and right‐sided encounter histories for bobcats (Lynx rufus) collected from remote single‐camera stations in southern California. In this example, there is evidence of a behavioral effect (i.e., trap “happy” response) that is otherwise indiscernible using conventional single‐sided analyses. The package will be most useful to ecologists seeking stronger inferences by combining different sources of mark–recapture data that are difficult (or impossible) to reliably reconcile, particularly with the sparse datasets typical of rare or elusive species for which noninvasive sampling techniques are most commonly employed. Addressing deficiencies in currently available software, multimark also provides a user‐friendly interface for performing Bayesian multimodel inference using capture–recapture data consisting of a single conventional mark or multiple noninvasive marks.     

The competing countermarks hypothesis: reliable assessment of competitive ability by potential mates

Scent marking on top of (overmarking), or in the vicinity of, a scent mark already present is commonly termed countermarking. Scent marks and countermarks provide a continuous record of competitive challenges between conspecifics, thus providing a reliable advertisement of an individual's ability to dominate or defend an area to other competitors and potential mates. To test the hypothesis that females should prefer males that countermark competing scent marks in their territory over those whose own marks are partially countermarked by a competing male, we manipulated scent marks in the territories of neighbouring male house mice (captive-bred Mus domesticus). As predicted, oestrous females were more strongly attracted to approach territory owners that countermarked the scent mark challenges of competitors than those that had been countermarked, and females themselves deposited more scent marks near the scents of these males. To investigate whether female mice use scent age, overlap or intrinsic qualitative or quantitative differences between scent marks and countermarks to make this discrimination, we redeposited male scent marks artificially as marks and partially overlapping countermarks, with or without a 24-h age difference between them. While the intrinsic quality or quantity of countermarks did not affect discrimination, an age difference between the original mark and subsequent countermark was important for consistent discrimination. The ultimate function of such competitive scent signalling thus may be to provide potential mates with a reliable indicator of the competitive ability of individuals advertising their high status. Since scent marks remain in the environment and are continuously available to challenge and investigation, they may provide a particularly effective and reliable means of dominance advertisement. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Ontogeny of Flehmen in Sable Antelope,Hippotragus niger

Flehmen, a conspicuous posture characterized by eversion of the upper lip, facilitates the transfer of nonvolatile urinary chemicals to the vomeronasal organ and therefore has been implicated in the control of reproduction in ungulates. The ontogeny of urine sampling and flehmen was investigated in semi-free-ranging sable antelope, Hippotragus niger, at the National Zoological Park's Conservation and Research Center because behavioural evidence suggests that flehmen is a mechanism of reproductive synchronization among females. During the first year of life, flehmen rates increased with age in both sexes. Flehmen rates of female calves equalled those of adult females by 4 months of age. Male calves first exhibited flehmen at younger ages than did female calves and showed greater increases in flehmen rate during development. Both sexes exhibited flehmen primarily after sampling urine of female conspecifics as it was being voided. During the first 2 months of life, sable antelope preferred to sample urine of other calves, but by 1 year of age adult females were the preferred targets. Females approaching sexual maturity preferred to sample urine from postpartum females (presumably resuming oestrous cycling) rather than from pregnant females, as expected if they were attempting to synchronize oestrus with experienced females. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that flehmen serves to coordinate reproduction among females and further suggest that flehmen may affect reproductive maturation.     

雄性大熊猫对化学信息行为反应的年龄差异

化学通讯对哺乳动物的生存和繁殖起着重要作用。研究了雄性大熊猫(Ailuropoda melanoleuca)对同伴个体尿液气味行为反应的发育模式。结果显示,在成年雌性个体的尿液气味刺激下,雄性个体表现显著多的嗅闻行为和嗅闻/舔舐环境行为,但是嘶咬气味刺激物的行为明显减少。在雌性个体的尿液气味刺激下,不同年龄段的雄性个体行为表现不同,成年雄性个体表现较亚成年和幼年个体显著多的舔舐行为。此外,成年个体和亚成年个体均表现较多的嗅闻/舔舐环境行为,而幼年个体则无该行为表现。幼年个体较成年和亚成年个体表现显著多的气味涂抹行为,而且嘶咬气味刺激物的时间较亚成年个体显著多。幼年个体和亚成年个体对雌性和雄性个体尿液气味刺激的行为反应不存在显著差异。研究结果表明,雄性大熊猫对同种个体尿液中化学信息的行为反应呈现出年龄差异。     

Oomycetes along a 120,000 year temperate rainforest ecosystem development chronosequence

The occurrence of plant-associated oomycetes in natural ecosystems and particularly during long-term ecosystem development is largely unknown. Using DNA sequencing, we investigated the frequency and host relationships of plant-root-associated oomycete communities along a 120 000 y glacial chronosequence, comprising site ages with rapid compositional change (“early succession”; 5–70 y old soil); relatively stable higher-diversity sites (“mature”, 280–12000 y); and ancient, nutrient-limited soils with declining plant biomass and stature (“retrogression”, 60 000, 120 000 y). Plant-associated oomycetes were frequent in early successional sites, occurring in 38–65% of plant roots, but rare (mean 3%) in all older ecosystems. Oomycete OTUs occurred non-randomly with plant host species, and were more frequent on those plant species that declined most strongly in abundance between ecosystem ages. While oomycetes were common in early succession, their absence in older sites suggests a limited role in later stages of ecosystem development.     

Antorbital and forehead secretions of black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus): Their role in age-class recognition

Male black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) scent mark with their forehead gland secretion and antorbital sac contents. When forehead and antorbital sections were presented on the same nylon rod on an artificial tree, male deer discriminated between male yearlings' and fawns' secretions. When the secretions were presented separately, male deer discriminated between yearlings' forehead and antorbital secretions and blank controls. Discrimination was indicated by differential rates of sniffing and licking. In addition, the frequency of forehead rubbing of the scent marks appeared to be dependent on the dominance relationships of the male deer. Chemical evidence is presented which suggests that male yearlings' and fawns' antorbital secretions differ quantitatively. Females did not respond preferentially to these secretions and, with the exception of sniffing, responded significantly less than males.     

Beyond DNA barcoding: The unrealized potential of genome skim data in sample identification

Genetic tools are increasingly used to identify and discriminate between species. One key transition in this process was the recognition of the potential of the ca 658bp fragment of the organelle cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) as a barcode region, which revolutionized animal bioidentification and lead, among others, to the instigation of the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD), containing currently barcodes from >7.9 million specimens. Following this discovery, suggestions for other organellar regions and markers, and the primers with which to amplify them, have been continuously proposed. Most recently, the field has taken the leap from PCR‐based generation of DNA references into shotgun sequencing‐based “genome skimming” alternatives, with the ultimate goal of assembling organellar reference genomes. Unfortunately, in genome skimming approaches, much of the nuclear genome (as much as 99% of the sequence data) is discarded, which is not only wasteful, but can also limit the power of discrimination at, or below, the species level. Here, we advocate that the full shotgun sequence data can be used to assign an identity (that we term for convenience its “DNA‐mark”) for both voucher and query samples, without requiring any computationally intensive pretreatment (e.g. assembly) of reads. We argue that if reference databases are populated with such “DNA‐marks,” it will enable future DNA‐based taxonomic identification to complement, or even replace PCR of barcodes with genome skimming, and we discuss how such methodology ultimately could enable identification to population, or even individual, level.     

根田鼠气味识别的性二型

以新鲜尿和粪作气味源,在行为选择箱中观察根田鼠的行为识别模式,结果表明：雌鼠对陌生同性尿、粪气味源行为识别的差异不显,雄鼠对陌生同性尿、粪气味源的行为识别在多个指标上存在显差异;根田鼠对陌生异性尿、粪的行为响应模式无明显差异;除嗅舔时间外,雌、雄鼠对粪气味的行为识别在其他指标上不存在明显差异;比较雌、雄鼠对尿刺激的行为识别发现,雄鼠对尿刺激的访问频次和反标记显大于雌鼠,雌性嗅舔时间显大于雄性,其他方面二之间并无显差异。因此,雌、雄性根田鼠对粪气味的行为识别模式不存在性别差异;对尿气味的行为识别模式存在性别差异。     

Flehmen response in bull: role of vaginal mucus and other body fluids of bovine with special reference to estrus

The present investigation was carried out with a view to evaluate the frequency of Flehmen behaviour in bull in response to body fluids of cows in various stages of the estrous cycle, in the context of estrus detection. The study was performed on free moving bulls under natural conditions. Samples of vaginal mucus, saliva, faeces and milk of pro-estrus, estrus and di-estrus stages collected from donor cows were rubbed individually onto the genital regions of non-estrus animals (dummy cows) and the bulls were observed for 30 min for assessment of Flehmen behaviour. The duration of Flehmen behaviour shown by bulls was maximum towards the dummy cows receiving estrus sample. Such Flehmen behaviour, however, did not occur in bulls in response to the cows receiving samples of other stages. The statistical significance was higher (P < 0.001) in exhibiting repeated Flehmen behaviour towards estrus as compared to those of pro-estrus and di-estrus. Among the various body fluids tested, the exhibition of Flehmen behaviour was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in response to estrus vaginal fluid. No response was observed on dummy cows (control) to which only water was applied on the genital region. The results suggest that vaginal mucus may act as an additional/secondary source along with urine in eliciting copulatary behaviour and executing coitus in bulls during estrus. The results further suggest that in addition to vaginal mucus, other body fluids like saliva, faeces and milk have estrus-related odours and are probably involved in bovine bio-communication.     

How does dune morphology shape coastal EC habitats occurrence? A remote sensing approach using airborne LiDAR on the Mediterranean coast

We examined the relationship between coastal habitats (sensu European Union Habitats Directive) and local dune morphology along a Mediterranean coastal dune system by integrating field collected vegetation data and remotely sensed imagery. Specifically, we described the morphological profile of each EC habitat based on the morphological variables that are most likely to affect their occurrence, including elevation, slope, curvature, northness, eastness and sea distance. In addition, we assessed the role and strength of each morphological variable in determining the occurrence of EC habitats.We used 394 random vegetation plots representative of six EC habitats (Habitat 1210: “Annual vegetation of drift lines”; Habitat 2110: “Embryonic shifting dunes”; Habitat 2120: “Shifting dunes along the shoreline with Ammophila arenaria”; Habitat 2210 and 2230: “Crucianellion maritimae fixed beach dunes” and “Malcolmietalia dune grasslands”; Habitat 2250: “Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp.”; Habitat 2260: “Cisto-Lavanduletalia dune sclerophyllous scrubs”) found along the Tyrrhenian coast of central Italy. We derived each morphological variable from a DTM (Digital Terrain Model) obtained from 2-m resolution LiDAR (Light Detection And Range) images. The mean value of each variable was calculated at different spatial scales using buffer areas of increasing radius (2 m, 4 m, 8 m) around each vegetation plot. Mean morphological values for each EC habitat were compared using Kruskal-Wallis rank test. The role and strength of the relationship between habitat type and the morphological variables were assessed using Generalized Linear Models.EC habitats occur differentially across dune morphology, and the role and strength of each morphological variable define habitat specificity. Dune elevation and sea distance were determined to be the key factors in shaping EC habitat occurrence along this section of the Mediterranean coast. Identification of the close relationship between habitat type and morphological variables deriving from airborne LiDAR imagery points to the high potential of such remote sensing tool for analyzing and monitoring the integrity of coastal dune ecosystems. As airborne LiDAR enables the rapid collection of extremely accurate topographic data over large areas, it also offers useful information for the management of these threatened and fragile ecosystems.     

Toward community predictions: Multi‐scale modelling of mountain breeding birds' habitat suitability,landscape preferences,and environmental drivers

Across a large mountain area of the western Swiss Alps, we used occurrence data (presence‐only points) of bird species to find suitable modelling solutions and build reliable distribution maps to deal with biodiversity and conservation necessities of bird species at finer scales. We have performed a multi‐scale method of modelling, which uses distance, climatic, and focal variables at different scales (neighboring window sizes), to estimate the efficient scale of each environmental predictor and enhance our knowledge on how birds interact with their complex environment. To identify the best radius for each focal variable and the most efficient impact scale of each predictor, we have fitted univariate models per species. In the last step, the final set of variables were subsequently employed to build ensemble of small models (ESMs) at a fine spatial resolution of 100 m and generate species distribution maps as tools of conservation. We could build useful habitat suitability models for the three groups of species in the national red list. Our results indicate that, in general, the most important variables were in the group of bioclimatic variables including “Bio11” (Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter), and “Bio 4” (Temperature Seasonality), then in the focal variables including “Forest”, “Orchard”, and “Agriculture area” as potential foraging, feeding and nesting sites. Our distribution maps are useful for identifying the most threatened species and their habitat and also for improving conservation effort to locate bird hotspots. It is a powerful strategy to improve the ecological understanding of the distribution of bird species in a dynamic heterogeneous environment.     

Geometry of movement of the outer surface of the embryo during <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenopus</Emphasis> gastrulation

The surface of Xenopus laevis embryos was marked with carbon particles, after which the location of mark groups was recorded by time-lapse video imaging and subsequent image analysis until their disappearance in the depth of gastric invagination. Measuring the distances between individually identifiable marks whose size is smaller than the size of a single cell makes it possible to quantitatively analyze the geometry of collective cell movement without any external coordinate system. During the dorsal blastopore lip (DBL) formation, the invagination of surface cells fundamentally differs from the preceding and subsequent lateromedial (LM) intercalation, being associated with a decrease in the meridional distance and an increase in the latitudinal distance between the marked surface sites. The sites that began to move towards the DBL later overtake the areas that started movement earlier, which leads to a “plug” in the movement of cells. Pushing the “plug” into the inner layers by changing the DBL shape becomes the rate-limiting stage of gastrulation; then, the directed cell movement is replaced by epiboly based on LM intercalation when the marks remaining on the outer surface of the marginal zone diverge along its meridians without directed migration towards the blastopore. As a result, directional movement of cells and LM intercalation become successive phases of collective cell movement, and the entire morphogenesis of DBL is the direct consequence of epiboly deceleration occurring upon gastric invagination.