神经元稳态失衡和饮食诱导肥胖症的相关性研究进展

近年来,因肥胖症所造成的社会问题和医疗负担越发严重。肥胖主要是由于机体能量的摄入与消耗不平衡所致,而中枢神经系统以及相关神经元在机体能量代谢平衡的调控中发挥着重要作用。下丘脑弓状核含有抑食性阿黑皮素原(Proopiomelanocortin,POMC)神经元和促食性神经肽Y (Neuropeptid Y,NPY)/刺鼠相关蛋白(Agouti-related protein,AgRP)神经元,是调控机体摄食行为的主要神经元。研究显示,高脂饮食会诱导POMC神经元中的Rb蛋白发生磷酸化修饰并失活,导致POMC神经元从静息状态重新进入细胞周期循环,进而迅速转向细胞凋亡。高脂饮食也会引起神经元再生抑制,并诱导炎症发生和神经元损伤,使神经元稳态失衡,引发瘦素抵抗,最终导致肥胖症的发生。文中就神经元稳态失衡以及肥胖症等疾病之间的关系进行了综述,希望能为饮食诱导肥胖症等疾病的治疗和预防提供新的方向和思路。     

Maternal obesity impairs brain glucose metabolism and neural response to hyperglycemia in male rat offspring

Hypothalamic appetite regulators neuropeptide Y (NPY) and pro‐opiomelanocortin (POMC) are modulated by glucose. This study investigated how maternal obesity disturbs glucose regulation of NPY and POMC, and whether this deregulation is linked to abnormal hypothalamic glucose uptake‐lactate conversion. As post‐natal high‐fat diet (HFD) can exaggerate the effects of maternal obesity, its additional impact was also investigated. Female Sprague Dawley rats were fed a HFD (20 kJ/g) to model maternal obesity. At weaning, male pups were fed chow or HFD. At 9 weeks, in vivo hypothalamic NPY and POMC mRNA responses to acute hyperglycemia were measured; while hypothalami were glucose challenged in vitro to assess glucose uptake‐lactate release and related gene expression. Maternal obesity dampened in vivo hypothalamic NPY response to acute hyperglycemia, and lowered in vitro hypothalamic glucose uptake and lactate release. When challenged with 20 mM glucose, hypothalamic glucose transporter 1, monocarboxylate transporters, lactate dehydrogenase‐b, NPY and POMC mRNA expression were down‐regulated in offspring exposed to maternal obesity. Post‐natal HFD consumption reduced in vitro lactate release and monocarboxylate transporter 2 mRNA, but increased POMC mRNA levels when challenged with 20 mM glucose. Overall, maternal obesity produced stronger effects than post‐natal HFD consumption to impair hypothalamic glucose metabolism. However, they both disturbed NPY response to hyperglycemia, potentially leading to hyperphagia.

     

Ghrelin raises [Ca2+]i via AMPK in hypothalamic arcuate nucleus NPY neurons

Ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone, directly activates neuropeptide (NPY) neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC), and thereby stimulates food intake. The hypothalamic level of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an intracellular energy sensor, is activated by peripheral and central administration of ghrelin. We examined whether ghrelin regulates AMPK activity in NPY neurons of the ARC. Single neurons were isolated from the ARC and cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) was measured by fura-2 microfluorometry, followed by immunocytochemical identification of NPY, phospho-AMPK, and phospho-acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). Ghrelin and AICAR, an AMPK activator, increased [Ca²⁺]_i in neurons isolated from the ARC. The ghrelin-responsive neurons highly overlapped with AICAR-responsive neurons. The neurons that responded to both ghrelin and AICAR were primarily NPY-immunoreactive neurons. Treatment with ghrelin increased phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC. An AMPK inhibitor, compound C, suppressed ghrelin-induced [Ca²⁺]_i increases. These results demonstrate that ghrelin increases [Ca²⁺]_i via AMPK-mediated signaling in the ARC NPY neurons.     

Hypothalamic Neuroendocrine Circuitry is Programmed by Maternal Obesity: Interaction with Postnatal Nutritional Environment

Objective

Early life nutrition is critical for the development of hypothalamic neurons involved in energy homeostasis. We previously showed that intrauterine and early postnatal overnutrition programmed hypothalamic neurons expressing the appetite stimulator neuropeptide Y (NPY) and suppressor proopiomelanocortin (POMC) in offspring at weaning. However, the long-term effects of such programming and its interactions with post-weaning high-fat-diet (HFD) consumption are unclear.

Research Design and Methods

Female Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to chow or HFD for 5 weeks before mating, throughout gestation and lactation. On postnatal day 1, litters were adjusted to 3/litter to induce postnatal overnutrition (vs. 12 in control). At postnatal day 20, half of the rats from each maternal group were weaned onto chow or HFD for 15 weeks. Hypothalamic appetite regulators, and fuel (glucose and lipid) metabolic markers were measured.

Results

Offspring from obese dams gained more weight than those from lean dams independent of post-weaning diet. Maternal obesity interacted with post-weaning HFD consumption to cause greater levels of hyperphagia, adiposity, hyperlipidemia, and glucose intolerance in offspring. This was linked to increased hypothalamic NPY signaling and leptin resistance in adult offspring. Litter size reduction had a detrimental impact on insulin and adiponectin, while hypothalamic NPY and POMC mRNA expression were suppressed in the face of normal energy intake and weight gain.

Conclusions

Maternal obesity, postnatal litter size reduction and post-weaning HFD consumption caused obesity via different neuroendocrine mechanims. There were strong additive effects of maternal obesity and post-weaning HFD consumption to increase the metabolic disorders in offspring.     

Activation of the Rb/E2F1 pathway by the nonproliferative p38 MAPK during Fas (APO1/CD95)-mediated neuronal apoptosis

Aberrant activation of the Rb/E2F1 pathway in cycling cells, in response to mitogenic or nonmitogenic stress signals, leads to apoptosis through hyperphosphorylation of Rb. To test whether in postmitotic neurons the Rb/E2F1 pathway can be activated by the nonmitogenic stress signaling, we examined the role of the p38 stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) in regulating Rb phosphorylation in response to Fas (CD95/APO1)-mediated apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs). Anti-Fas antibody induced a dramatic and early activation of p38. Activated p38 was correlated with the induction of hyperphosphorylation of both endogenous and exogenous Rb. The p38-selective inhibitor, SB203580, attenuated such an increase in pRb phosphorylation and significantly protected CGNs from Fas-induced apoptosis. The cyclin-dependent kinase-mediated Rb phosphorylation played a lesser role in this neuronal death paradigm, since cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, such as olomoucine, roscovitine, and flavopiridol, did not significantly prevent anti-Fas antibody-evoked neuronal apoptosis. Hyperphosphorylation of Rb by p38 SAPK resulted in the release of Rb-bound E2F1. Increased E2F1 modulated neuronal apoptosis, since E2F1-/- CGNs were significantly less susceptible to Fas-mediated apoptosis in comparison with the wild-type CGNs. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that neuronal Rb/E2F1 is modulated by the nonproliferative p38 SAPK in Fas-mediated neuronal apoptosis.     

Hepatitis B viral X protein overcomes inhibition of E2F1 activity by pRb on the human Rb gene promoter

Hepatitis B virus X (HBx) protein is known as an oncogenic transactivator, E2F1 as a positive regulator of the cell cycle, and pRb as a tumor suppressor. Here, we investigated the functional interactions of these proteins on the human Rb promoter. Interestingly, HBx transactivated the Rb promoter cooperatively with E2F1 in HepG2 cells but not in HeLa cells, in which the functions of p53 and pRb are inactive. Combinatorial cotransfection analyses in HepG2 cells showed that HBx overcame the inhibition of E2F1 activity by pRb but not that by p53. Domain analysis showed that aa 47-70 and aa 117-133 of HBx are important for this effect. These results suggest that HBx could inhibit the pRb tumor suppressor and increase E2F1 activity. Our data support the oncogenic potential of HBx, which may cause HBV-infected cells to grow continuously in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma.     

4-Hydroxynonenal affects pRb/E2F pathway in HL-60 human leukemic cells

4-Hydroxynonenal (HNE), a highly reactive product of lipid peroxidation, has an antiproliferative effect in several tumor cell lines and provokes alteration of cell cycle progression in HL-60 cells. HNE down-regulates c-myc expression in K562, HL-60, and MEL cells. This prompted us to study the cascade of phenomena that, starting from the CKIs expression and the phosphorylation of pRb, arrives at the E2F binding to consensus sequence in the P2 promoter of the c-myc gene. Treatment of HL-60 cells with HNE (1 microM) causes a p53-independent increase of p21(WAF1/CIP1) expression, pRb dephosphorylation, a decrease of low molecular weight E2F complexes and an increase of high molecular weight E2F complexes bound to P2 c-myc promoter. E2F4 expression is reduced by HNE treatment as well as the amount of pRb/E2F4 complexes, whereas the amount of pRb/E2F1 complexes is increased. In conclusion, HNE can affect the pRb/E2F pathway by modifying the expression of several genes involved in the control of cell proliferation.     

Racing to block tumorigenesis after pRb loss: An innocuous point mutation wins with synthetic lethality

A major goal of tumor suppressor research is to neutralize the tumorigenic effects of their loss. Since loss of pRb does not induce tumorigenesis in many types of cells, natural mechanisms may neutralize the tumorigenic effects of pRb loss in these cells. For susceptible cells, neutralizing the tumorigenic effects of pRb loss could logically be achieved by correcting the deregulated activities of pRb targets to render pRb-deficient cells less abnormal. This line of research has unexpectedly revealed that knocking out the pRb target Skp2 did not render Rb1 deficient cells less abnormal but, rather, induced apoptosis in them, thereby completely blocking tumorigenesis in Rb1+/- mice and after targeted deletion of Rb1 in pituitary intermediate lobe (IL). Skp2 is a substrate-recruiting component of the SCFSkp2 E3 biquitin ligase; one of its substrates is Thr187-phosphorylated p27Kip1. A p27T187A knockin (KI) mutation phenocopied Skp2 knockout (KO) in inducing apoptosis following Rb1 loss. Thus, Skp2 KO or p27T187A KI are synthetic lethal with pRb inactivation. Since homozygous p27T187A KI mutations show no adverse effects in mice, inhibiting p27T187 phosphorylation or p27T187p ubiquitination could be a highly therapeutic and minimally toxic intervention strategy for pRb deficiency-induced tumorigenesis.     

Hypothalamic NPY,AGRP, and POMC mRNA responses to leptin and refeeding in mice

Food deprivation (FD) increases hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AGRP) mRNA levels and decreases proopiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA levels; refeeding restores these levels. We determined the time course of changes in hypothalamic NPY, AGRP, and POMC mRNA levels on refeeding after 24 h FD in C57BL mice by in situ hybridization. After 24 h deprivation, mice were refed with either chow or a palatable mash containing no calories or were injected with murine leptin (100 microg) without food. Mice were perfused 2 or 6 h after treatment. Food deprivation increased hypothalamic NPY mRNA (108 +/- 6%) and AGRP mRNA (78 +/- 7%) and decreased hypothalamic POMC mRNA (-15 +/- 1%). Refeeding for 6 h, but not 2 h, was sufficient to reduce (but not restore) NPY mRNA, did not affect AGRP mRNA, and restored POMC mRNA levels to ad libitum control levels. Intake of the noncaloric mash had no effect on mRNA levels, and leptin administration after deprivation (at a dose sufficient to reduce refeeding in FD mice) was not sufficient to affect mRNA levels. These results suggest that gradual postabsorptive events subsequent to refeeding are required for the restoration of peptide mRNA to baseline levels after food deprivation in mice.     

Leptin sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus.

A major paradigm in the field of obesity research is the existence of an adipose tissue-brain endocrine axis for the regulation of body weight. Leptin, the peptide mediator of this axis, is secreted by adipose cells. It lowers food intake and body weight by acting in the hypothalamus, a region expressing an abundance of leptin receptors and a variety of neuropeptides that influence food intake and energy balance. Among the most promising candidates for leptin-sensitive cells in the hypothalamus are arcuate nucleus neurons that co-express the anabolic neuropeptides, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AGRP), and those that express proopiomelanocortin (POMC), the precursor of the catabolic peptide, alphaMSH. These cell types contain mRNA encoding leptin receptors and show changes in neuropeptide gene expression in response to changes in food intake and circulating leptin levels. Decreased leptin signaling in the arcuate nucleus is hypothesized to increase the expression of NPY and AGRP. Levels of leptin receptor mRNA and leptin binding are increased in the arcuate nucleus during fasting, principally in NPY/AGRP neurons. These findings suggest that changes in leptin receptor expression in the arcuate nucleus are inversely associated with changes in leptin signaling, and that the arcuate nucleus is an important target of leptin action in the brain.