An Urban Metabolism and Carbon Footprint Analysis of the Jing–Jin–Ji Regional Agglomeration

Urban energy metabolism includes processes for exploiting, transforming, and consuming energy, as well as processes for recycling by‐products and wastes. Embodied energy is the energy consumed during all of these activities, both directly and indirectly. Multiregional input‐output (MRIO) analysis can calculate the energy consumption embodied in flows among sectors for multiple cities or regions. Our goal was to address a problem apparent in previous research, which was insufficient attention to indirect energy flows. We combined MRIO analysis with ecological network analysis to calculate the embodied energy consumption and the energy‐related carbon footprints of five sectors in three regions that comprise the Jing‐Jin‐Ji agglomeration, using data from 2002 and 2007. Our analysis traced metabolic processes of sectors from the perspective of final consumption. Based on the embodied energy analysis, we quantified the indirect energy consumption implied in exchanges of sectors and its distribution and identified the relationships formed through the indirect consumption to analyze the roles of providers and receivers in the system. Results showed that the embodied energy consumption for the Jing‐Jin‐Ji region increased from 2002 to 2007 as a result of increased energy consumption in Tianjin and Hebei. Overall, consumption of Beijing decreased likely attributable to the fact that government policies relocated industries during this time in anticipation of the Olympic Games. The relationships among sectors changed: Beijing changed from a net exporter to an importer, whereas Hebei changed from a net importer of energy from Beijing to an exporter to Beijing, and Tianjin served as an importer in both years.     

Advancements in Input‐Output Models and Indicators for Consumption‐Based Accounting

The use of global, multiregional input‐output (MRIO) analysis for consumption‐based (footprint) accounting has expanded significantly over the last decade. Most of the global studies on environmental and social impacts associated with consumption or embodied in international trade would have been impossible without the rapid development of extended MRIO databases. We present an overview of the developments in the field of MRIO analysis, in particular as applied to consumption‐based environmental and social footprints. We first provide a discussion of research published on various global MRIO databases and the differences between them, before focusing on the virtual laboratory computing infrastructure for potentially making MRIO databases more accessible for collaborative research, and also for supporting greater sectoral and regional detail. We discuss work that includes a broader range of extensions, in particular the inclusion of social indicators in consumption‐based accounting. We conclude by discussing the need for the development of detailed nested MRIO tables for investigating linkages between regions of different countries, and the applications of the rapidly growing field of global MRIO analysis for assessing a country's performance toward the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.     

Subnational greenhouse gas and land‐based biodiversity footprints in the European Union

Insights into subnational environmental impacts and the underlying drivers are scarce, especially from a consumption‐based perspective. Here, we quantified greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and land‐based biodiversity losses associated with final consumption in 162 regions in the European Union in 2010. For this purpose, we developed an environmentally extended multi‐regional input–output (MRIO) model with subnational European information on demand, production, and trade structures subdivided into 18 major economic sectors, while accounting for trade outside Europe. We employed subnational data on land use and national data on GHG emissions. Our results revealed within‐country differences in per capita GHG and land‐based biodiversity footprints up to factors of 3.0 and 3.5, respectively, indicating that national footprints may mask considerable subnational variability. The per capita GHG footprint increased with per capita income and income equality, whereas we did not find such responses for the per capita land‐based biodiversity footprint, reflecting that extra income is primarily spent on energy‐intensive activities. Yet, we found a shift from the domestic to the foreign part of the biodiversity footprints with rising population density and income. Because our analysis showed that most regions are already net importers of GHG emissions and biodiversity losses, we conclude that it is increasingly important to address the role of trade in national and regional policies on mitigating GHG emissions and averting further biodiversity losses, both within and outside the region itself. To further increase the policy relevance of subnational footprint analyses, we also recommend the compilation of more detailed subnational MRIO databases including harmonized environmental data.     

Combining Multiregional Input‐Output Analysis with a World Trade Model for Evaluating Scenarios for Sustainable Use of Global Resources,Part I: Conceptual Framework

Consumption in a particular country often entails resource extraction, production, and environmental degradation in remote locations. This fact has stimulated a growing body of empirical analysis using input‐output (I‐O) databases and techniques to reveal and quantify the underlying linkages. Two lines of research rooted in I‐O economics, multiregional input‐output (MRIO) analysis and I‐O modeling of the world economy, describe and analyze these relationships, the first for the past, increasingly in the form of footprints and the underlying pathways, and the latter under alternative scenarios about possible courses of action in the future. The article shows how organizing such scenario outcomes into an MRIO database can extend the reach of MRIO analysis to the future while simultaneously supplementing the capabilities of the world trade modeling framework. We describe the compilation of an MRIO database from the results of scenario analysis using the world trade model (WTM) in a companion article (Part II, Implementation); the subsequent application of MRIO techniques to this database permits the evaluation of prospects for the future. We also address several overlooked challenges, namely, the need to include factor endowments and distances between potential trade partners in an MRIO database, the representation of sectors providing transport of internationally traded goods, and the manipulation of mixed physical and money units when both quantities and prices are endogenous.     

京津冀城市群能源供需与城市化的关系模式

城镇化发展加剧了城市对能源的消耗,进而加剧了能源供需不平衡,这种不平衡已经成为限制城镇化发展的重要因素。目前,城市群作为我国城镇化发展的重要形式,充分发挥城市群的协同效应以减缓能源供需矛盾,对实现区域可持续发展具有重要意义。研究以京津冀城市群为例,从地级市尺度系统地核算了2001—2015年能源供应和需求量,并采用ward聚类方法划分3种不同类型的能源供求特征,并分析了每种类型的能源供需特征差异。同时,以能源供需比值表示供需差异并进行了比较。在此基础上,采用多指标综合分析方法进一步探讨了能源供需与城市化的关系模式。结果表明:(1)京津冀城市群不同城市能源的供求特征及变化存在明显的时空差异。一方面,从能源供给特征来看,年平均能源生产量较高的城市(天津市)能源产量由上升转变为平缓变化趋势,而低产城市(石家庄市)呈不稳定的变化趋势,两类城市平均能源产量相差2497.66万t标准煤;另一方面,从能源需求特征来看,北京、天津市等能源高耗城市能源消费近年来趋于下降趋势,而低耗型城市(沧州市)近年来呈波动变化,二者平均差值为4752.49万t标准煤;(2)基于能源供需比值,京津冀城市群所有城市均表现为能源供不应求,且不同城市能源供需缺口差异明显。其中,天津市能源供给能力最强,但其生产量却不及自身消费量的65%,而供给能力相对最弱的城市保定市,其能源需求几乎完全依赖外部能源供给;(3)城市能源供需与城市化水平之间关系不完全一致。研究对能源供需模式与城市化模式不一致的城市,划分了先进型和滞后型两种关系模式。对于先进型的城市,主要有北京市、沧州市和廊坊市,它们的城市化水平相对较高,分析认为其能源开发利用相对集约;而属于滞后型的城市,包括唐山市、邯郸市和邢台市,其城市化水平偏低,分析认为这类城市能源开发利用效率低、发展方式相对粗放,是城市群能源效率提升的重点。本研究旨在为今后的城市群能源规划提供科学依据,建议北京市等能源相对集约型城市带动唐山市等发展方式粗放、落后的城市,以提高京津冀城市群整体的能源效率。     

基于多区域投入产出分析的京津冀地区虚拟水核算

通过贸易与消费调控实现区域水资源优化配置已成为缓解地区水资源压力的途径之一。跨区域投入产出分析可为地区间虚拟水贸易战略提供依据。基于2012年京津冀地区投入产出表与生产用水量构建了跨地区虚拟水核算模型,计算了隐含在经济贸易中的虚拟水总量及各地区各部门的直接用水系数、完全用水系数和拉动系数,分析了各部门虚拟水进出口情况,识别了重点耗水部门。结果表明:京津冀地区呈现虚拟水净出口状态,其中净出口部门主要为北京的服务与交通业,河北的农业和制造业。京津冀的农业、矿业和水供应业在生产过程中直接消耗水量大,应注重提升用水效率及节水技术的开发;三地制造业、建筑业和服务与交通业的平均拉动系数较大,这说明其他部门生产活动对该部门依赖性较大,其单位产出的提高将带动整个地区更多虚拟水量的投入。此外,河北的农业和制造业为京津冀各部门输送了大量虚拟水,为各部门生产提供了支撑,是节水的重点部门,应着重调整其产业结构,并从直接和间接用水两方面入手减少水资源消耗。计算了京津冀地区不同部门的直接、间接水资源消耗、水资源消耗拉动系数,以及部门间的虚拟水贸易情况,结果可为该地区部门间水资源配置和虚拟水战略的制定提供基础。     

京津冀城市群人-地、人-水与人-碳交互胁迫关系及其叠加效应

随着社会、经济效益的不断增加及国际影响力的不断增大,京津冀正在向世界级城市群迈进。而快速的城市增长与资源环境的交互胁迫效应严重制约了京津冀地区的可持续发展,因此,明确城市增长与不同资源环境要素的相互作用机制并采用有效的措施,是实现京津冀地区发展和保护共生的关键。目前针对城镇化与单一种资源环境要素交互作用的研究较多,但对城镇化与不同资源环境要素相互作用的叠加效应的关注很少。针对土地、水资源与能源这三种明显限制京津冀地区发展的资源要素,综合考虑了供给侧与需求侧特征,分析了人-地、人-水与人-碳的相互作用关系,解析了京津冀地区城镇发展与不同资源环境要素交互胁迫作用及其叠加效应。结果表明：2002-2017年,1、城市群整体水平上,人-地、人-水和人-碳关系总体上均呈"强协调"或"弱协调"交替变化的状态;2、城市尺度上,不同城市的人-地、人-水和人-碳交互关系存在明显时空分异。多数城市都曾面临土地、水资源或能源的胁迫影响,尤其是河北的一些城市（石家庄、邯郸、承德、衡水、邢台、唐山及保定等）在有些年份面临土地、水资源或能源的"强胁迫"影响;3、从京津冀地区整体水平上看,不存在多种资源要素的叠加胁迫影响,但是,城市群内部多数城市在有的年份同时面临土地、水资源或能源两种以上资源要素的叠加胁迫影响。因此,要协同改善京津冀地区资源环境的胁迫,需要全面考虑不同空间尺度之间,不同城市之间,以及不同资源要素之间的叠加影响机制,有针对性的提出政策与措施。     

城市与区域生态关联研究进展

城市及其周边区域正在面临日益严峻的环境污染、生态恶化、资源短缺等问题。这些问题的出现,与长期以来城市发展过程中忽视城市与区域的生态关联密切相关。研究城市与区域的生态关联,对于解决城市与区域的生态环境问题、指导新型城镇化建设具有重要的理论意义与实践价值。主要从以下3个方面系统总结了城市与区域生态关联的研究进展:(1)城市发展对周边区域的生态环境影响,包括直接的胁迫和间接的影响;(2)区域对城市发展的生态支撑;(3)城市与周边区域社会、经济、生态关联的相互作用机制。指出了当前城市与区域生态关联研究中存在的问题和不足:1)城市对周边区域生态环境直接影响的研究较多,且多侧重城市对周边区域的负面影响,对其间接影响的研究较为缺乏;2)周边区域对城市发展生态支撑作用的研究相对缺乏、认识不够深入;3)对城市与周边区域生态关联作用机制的研究较为缺乏。未来的研究要将城市和区域作为统一整体,进一步完善城市与区域生态关联的理论框架,耦合社会经济的相互作用,定量解析城市与区域的生态关联,为城市与区域的可持续发展提供科学依据。     

我国城市人与自然耦合系统的协调度

城市作为人类生存与发展的主要空间载体,是人与自然耦合系统的典型代表。城市人与自然协调度是认识人与自然耦合机制重要内容,对揭示城市人类活动对生态环境的影响,指导城市建设具有重要意义。从水资源开发强度、土地开发强度、水资源供给能力、环境污染物排放强度与碳排放强度五个方面分析城市人与自然协调度特征,评估城市建设与发展对自然环境的影响程度,并评估了我国146个城市的协调度特征,进一步分析了城市人口规模、城市经济规模、城市社会发展水平、不同生态地理区人与自然耦合协调度的关系。结果表明：2016年城市平均协调度指数为87.90,不同城市的协调度差距很大且协调度与城市人口规模、经济规模、发展水平呈显著负相关,而六大生态地理区中,西南地区协调度最高,协调度指数为92.81,西北地区协调度最低,协调度指数为82.25。研究发现我国城市建设与发展对自然环境影响仍然较大,并表现为（1）我国城市发展总体仍处于高需求高排放的发展阶段;（2）生态环境承载力是影响城市人与自然耦合协调度的重要因素;（3）提高能源利用效率,降低碳排放强度在改善城市人与自然协调度中发挥作用。最后,从优化城市布局、提高水、能源利用效率、控制环境污染等方面提出政策建议,为评估城市生态文明建设与可持续发展提供参考与依据。     

The metabolism of U.S. cities 2.0

In the fifty years since Abel Wolman first published an estimate of U.S. urban metabolism, the field of urban metabolism has begun to thrive, with cities outside the United States being much of the focus. As cities attempt to meet local and international sustainability goals, it is time to revisit the metabolism of cities within the United States. Using existing empirical databases for material flows (the Freight Analysis Framework) and a published database on urban water flux, we provide a revised estimate of urban metabolism for the typical U.S. city. We estimate median values of metabolism for a city of one million people, considering water resources, food, fuel, and construction materials. Food consumption and waste production increased substantially to 3,800 metric tons per day and 4,900 metric tons per day, respectively. To facilitate a second generation of urban metabolism, we extend traditional analyses to include the embedded energy required to facilitate material consumption with important implications in determining sustainable urban metabolism. We estimate that a city of one million people requires nearly 4,000 gigajoules of primary energy per day to facilitate its metabolism. Our results show high heterogeneity of urban metabolism across the United States. As a result of the study, we conclude that there is a distinct need to promote policies at the regional or city scale that collect data for urban metabolism studies. Urban metabolism is an important educational and decision‐making tool that, with an increase in data availability, can provide important information for cities and their sustainability goals.     

Comparing urban food system characteristics and actions in US and Indian cities from a multi‐environmental impact perspective: Toward a streamlined approach

Food action plans in many global cities articulate interest in multiple objectives including reducing in‐ and trans‐boundary environmental impacts (water, land, greenhouse gas (GHG)). However, there exist few standardized analytical tools to compare food system characteristics and actions across cities and countries to assess trade‐offs between multiple objectives (i.e., health, equity) with environmental outcomes. This paper demonstrates a streamlined model applied for analysis of four cities with varying characteristics across the United States and India, to quantify system‐wide water, energy/GHG, and land impacts associated with multiple food system actions to address health, equity, and environment. Baseline diet analysis finds key differences between countries in terms of meat consumption (Delhi 4; Pondicherry 16; United States 59, kg/capita/year), and environmental impact of processing of the average diet (21%, 19%, <1%, <1% of community‐wide GHG‐emissions for New York, Minneapolis, Delhi, and Pondicherry). Analysis of supply chains finds city average distance (food‐miles) varies (Delhi 420; Pondicherry 200; United States average 1,640 km/t‐food) and the sensitivity of GHG emissions of food demand to spatial variability of energy intensity of irrigation is greater in Indian than US cities. Analysis also finds greater pre‐consumer waste in India versus larger post‐consumer accumulations in the United States. Despite these differences in food system characteristics, food waste management and diet change consistently emerge as key strategies. Among diet scenarios, all vegetarian diets are not found equal in terms of environmental benefit, with the US Government's recommended vegetarian diet resulting in less benefit than other more focused targeted diet changes.     

On the suitability of input–output analysis for calculating product-specific biodiversity footprints

Recently it has been estimated that one third of biodiversity threats are driven by consumer demand from outside the country in which the threat occurs. This occurs when the production of export goods exerts pressure on vulnerable populations. While population biologists have in cases been able to establish links between species threats and the causative industry(s), little has been done to trace this biodiversity footprint from the directly implicated industry out to final consumers, a step that would open a wider variety of policy responses. Here we investigate the suitability of multi-region input–output (MRIO) analysis for tracing out links between particular species threats, directly implicated industries, and the countries and consumer goods sectors ultimately driving these industries. Environmentally extended MRIO models are understood to provide reliable results at a macroeconomic level but uncertainty increases as the models are used to investigate individual sectors, companies, and products. In this study we examine several case studies (nickel mining in New Caledonia, coltan from the Democratic Republic of Congo, cut flowers from Kenya, and forestry in Papua New Guinea) in order to understand how and when MRIO techniques can be useful for studying biodiversity implicated supply chains. The study was conducted using the Eora global input–output database that documents >5 billion global supply chains. Calculating the biodiversity footprint at this level of detail, between specific threats, supply chains, and consumer goods, has not been done before. These case studies provide interesting insights in their own right and also serve to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of using input–output analysis techniques to calculate detailed biodiversity footprints. We conclude that MRIO analysis, while no panacea, can be useful for outlining supply chains and identifying which consumption sectors and trade and transformation steps can be subjected to closer analysis in order to enable remedial action.     

Enabling Future Sustainability Transitions

This synthesis article presents an overview of an urban metabolism (UM) approach using mixed methods and multiple sources of data for Los Angeles, California. We examine electric energy use in buildings and greenhouse gas emissions from electricity, and calculate embedded infrastructure life cycle effects, water use and solid waste streams in an attempt to better understand the urban flows and sinks in the Los Angeles region (city and county). This quantification is being conducted to help policy‐makers better target energy conservation and efficiency programs, pinpoint best locations for distributed solar generation, and support the development of policies for greater environmental sustainability. It provides a framework to which many more UM flows can be added to create greater understanding of the study area's resource dependencies. Going forward, together with policy analysis, UM can help untangle the complex intertwined resource dependencies that cities must address as they attempt to increase their environmental sustainability.     

基于生态系统管理理论的海域集约利用评价——以河北沿海地级市为例

基于生态系统管理理论,从海洋投入强度、海洋利用强度、海洋经济效益及海洋生态环境质量层面,构建海域集约利用评价的指标体系,运用模糊决策分析理论计算各指标权重,得到河北省沿海地级市2005—2014年的海域集约利用综合指数,并利用聚类分析法及协调度指数对河北省海域集约利用的区域差异特征进行了分析。研究结果表明:2005—2014年河北省海域集约利用综合水平不断提高,除海洋生态环境质量准则层指数呈下降趋势外,海洋投入强度、海洋利用强度、海洋经济效益3个层面指数均呈上升趋势,其中持续增加趋势最明显的是海洋经济效益准则层;河北省沿海三市海域集约利用综合指数及各准则层指数的时序变化特征基本一致,但各区域之间仍体现着不同的变化特点,沧州市海域集约利用程度较高,唐山市海域集约利用经历了由低到高的过程,秦皇岛市海域集约利用的状况整体处于一般水平;河北省及沿海三市海域集约利用总体保持了较高的协调度,但各地区不同时段的变化特征有所不同。     

The Water Withdrawal Footprint of Energy Supply to Cities

Water footprints traditionally estimate water lost as a result of evapotranspiration (or otherwise unavailable for downstream uses) associated with producing a certain good, and the same embodied in trade across regions is used to estimate regional and national water footprints. These footprints, however, do not address risk posed to city energy supplies characterized by insufficient streamflow to support energy production, such as cooling water intake (e.g., withdrawals) at thermoelectric power plants. Water withdrawal intensity factors for producing goods and services are being developed at the national scale, but lack sufficient spatial resolution to address these types of water‐energy challenges facing cities. To address this need, this article presents a water withdrawal footprint for energy supply (WWFES) to cities and places it in the context of other water footprints defined in the literature. Analysis of electricity use versus electricity generation in 43 U.S. cities highlights the need for developing WWFES to estimate risks to transboundary city energy supplies resulting from water constraints. The magnitude of the WWFES is computed for Denver, Colorado, and compared to the city's direct use of water to offer perspective. The baseline WWFES for Denver is found to be 66% as large as all direct water uses in the city combined (mean estimate). Minimum, mean, and maximum estimates are computed to demonstrate sensitivity of the WWFES to selection of water withdrawal intensity factors. Finally, scenario analysis explores the effect of energy technology and energy policy choices in shaping the future water footprint of cities.     

Plant traits and extinction in urban areas: a meta‐analysis of 11 cities

Aim Urban environments around the world share many features in common, including the local extinction of native plant species. We tested the hypothesis that similarity in environmental conditions among urban areas should select for plant species with a particular suite of traits suited to those conditions, and lead to the selective extinction of species lacking those traits. Location Eleven cities with data on the plant species that persisted and those that went locally extinct within at least the last 100 years following urbanization. Methods We compiled data on 11 plant traits for 8269 native species in the 11 cities and used hierarchical logistic regression models to identify the degree to which traits could distinguish species that persisted from those that went locally extinct in each city. The trait effects from each city were then combined in a meta‐analysis. Results The cities fell into two groups: those with relatively low rates of extinction (less than 0.05% species per year – Adelaide, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco), for which no traits reliably predicted the pattern of extinction, and those with higher rates of extinction (> 0.08% species per year – Auckland, Chicago, Melbourne, New York, Singapore and Worcester, MA), where short‐statured, small‐seeded plants were more likely to go extinct. Main conclusions Our analysis reveals patterns in trait selectivity consistent with local studies, suggesting some consistency in trait selection by urbanization. Overall, however, few traits reliably predicted the pattern of plant extinction across cities, making it difficult to identify a priori the extinction‐prone species most likely to be affected by urban expansion.     

How much heat can we grow in our cities? Modelling UK urban biofuel production potential

Biofuel provides a globally significant opportunity to reduce fossil fuel dependence; however, its sustainability can only be meaningfully explored for individual cases. It depends on multiple considerations including: life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, air quality impacts, food versus fuel trade‐offs, biodiversity impacts of land use change and socio‐economic impacts of energy transitions. One solution that may address many of these issues is local production of biofuel on non‐agricultural land. Urban areas drive global change, for example, they are responsible for 70% of global energy use, but are largely ignored in their resource production potential; however, underused urban greenspaces could be utilized for biofuel production near the point of consumption. This could avoid food versus fuel land conflicts in agricultural land and long‐distance transport costs, provide ecosystem service benefits to urban dwellers and increase the sustainability and resilience of cities and towns. Here, we use a Geographic Information System to identify urban greenspaces suitable for biofuel production, using exclusion criteria, in 10 UK cities. We then model production potential of three different biofuels: Miscanthus grass, short rotation coppice (SRC) willow and SRC poplar, within the greenspaces identified and extrapolate up to a UK‐scale. We demonstrate that approximately 10% of urban greenspace (3% of built‐up land) is potentially suitable for biofuel production. We estimate the potential of this to meet energy demand through heat generation, electricity and combined heat and power (CHP) operations. Our findings show that, if fully utilized, urban biofuel production could meet nearly a fifth of demand for biomass in CHP systems in the United Kingdom's climate compatible energy scenarios by 2030, with potentially similar implications for other comparable countries and regions.