Habitat use and spatial fidelity of male South American sea lions during the nonbreeding period

Conditions experienced during the nonbreeding period have profound long‐term effects on individual fitness and survival. Therefore, knowledge of habitat use during the nonbreeding period can provide insights into processes that regulate populations. At the Falkland Islands, the habitat use of South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) during the nonbreeding period is of particular interest because the population is yet to recover from a catastrophic decline between the mid‐1930s and 1965, and nonbreeding movements are poorly understood. Here, we assessed the habitat use of adult male (n = 13) and juvenile male (n = 6) South American sea lions at the Falkland Islands using satellite tags and stable isotope analysis of vibrissae. Male South American sea lions behaved like central place foragers. Foraging trips were restricted to the Patagonian Shelf and were typically short in distance and duration (127 ± 66 km and 4.1 ± 2.0 days, respectively). Individual male foraging trips were also typically characterized by a high degree of foraging site fidelity. However, the isotopic niche of adult males was smaller than juvenile males, which suggested that adult males were more consistent in their use of foraging habitats and prey over time. Our findings differ from male South American sea lions in Chile and Argentina, which undertake extended movements during the nonbreeding period. Hence, throughout their breeding range, male South American sea lions have diverse movement patterns during the nonbreeding period that intuitively reflects differences in the predictability or accessibility of preferred prey. Our findings challenge the long‐standing notion that South American sea lions undertake a winter migration away from the Falkland Islands. Therefore, impediments to South American sea lion population recovery likely originate locally and conservation measures at a national level are likely to be effective in addressing the decline and the failure of the population to recover.     

Identification of the maternal source of young‐of‐the‐year Arctic charr in Lake Hazen,Canada

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The diets of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) on the shelf and oceanic feeding grounds in the western North Pacific inferred from stable isotope analysis

Humpback whales feed on a variety of prey, but significant differences likely occur between regional feeding grounds. In this study, the diets of humpback whales were analyzed by comparing stable isotope ratios in animal tissues at three humpback whale feeding grounds in the Russian Far East: Karaginsky Gulf, Anadyr Gulf, and the Commander Islands. Anadyr Gulf is a neritic zone far from a shelf break, Karaginsky Gulf is a neritic zone close to a shelf break, and the Commander Islands represent an open oceanic ecosystem where whales feed off the shelf break. Samples from the Commander Islands had the lowest mean δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values (mean ± SE: δ¹³C = ?18.7 ± 0.1, δ¹⁵N = 10.4 ± 0.1) compared to the samples from Karaginsky Gulf (δ¹³C = ?17.2 ± 0.1, δ¹⁵N = 12.7 ± 0.2) and Anadyr Gulf (δ¹³C= ?17.8 ± 0.1, δ¹⁵N = 14.0 ± 0.4). The samples from Anadyr Gulf had the highest δ¹⁵N values, while the samples from Karaginsky Gulf had the highest δ¹³C values. Both δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values differed significantly among all three areas. Our data support the hypothesis that humpback whales tend to feed on fish in neritic areas and on plankton in deep oceanic waters.     

Changes in interspecies association patterns of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins,Tursiops truncatus,and Atlantic spotted dolphins,Stenella frontalis,after demographic changes related to environmental disturbance

Animal populations can be affected by environmental disturbances in many ways including demographic and behavioral changes. This can affect interspecies associations for regularly interacting sympatric species, like bottlenose and spotted dolphins in the Bahamas (observed since 1985 and interspecies associations analyzed since 1993). After two hurricanes in 2004 each species lost roughly 30% of their respective communities resulting in differing social structure and behavioral changes. During mixed species encounters (MSE) group sizes for spotted dolphins ( = 14.1 ± 9.2) were significantly larger than bottlenose dolphins ( = 6.0 ± 7.3; F = 11.74, df = 1, P < 0.001), however, t‐tests revealed no differences between aggressive vs. affiliative encounters. Sexual/aggressive behavior regularly seen previously was not observed posthurricanes and aggressive encounters were greatly reduced. Generally results were similar to prehurricane data including high resightings of spotted dolphins with male alliances prevalent (including new juvenile alliances seen only posthurricane), and individualized bottlenose participation with few male alliances. However temporal associations varied compared to prehurricane. Interspecies association and behavior patterns were altered and likely affected by the changes in intraspecies association patterns following the hurricanes. However both species still participated in MSE, suggesting this is an important component of their ability to coexist as sympatric species.     

The diverse dietary profiles of MIS 3 cave bears from the Romanian Carpathians: insights from stable isotope (δ13C and δ15N) analysis

Late Pleistocene European cave bears (Ursus spelaeus ) have been considered to be largely vegetarian, although stable isotope data (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values) from the Romanian Carpathians has suggested considerable dietary variation. Here we evaluate previous and additional adult cave bear isotopic data from four Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3) sites in the Carpathians. Pe?tera Ur?ilor (N  =  35), Pe?tera Cioclovina (N  =  32), Pe?tera Muierilor (N  =  8), and Pe?tera cu Oase (N  =  72) provide both a dichotomy between samples suggesting vegetarian diets (from Cioclovina and Muierilor) and more omnivorous diets (from Ur?ilor and Oase), and considerable isotopic variation within samples from each site. While an inference of a strictly vegetarian diet may apply to groups that lived in ecosystems which restricted the available animal protein for these large ursids, the within and between sample isotopic variation among the Carpathian cave bears indicates considerable flexibility in their sources of protein and hence in their dietary regimes. In addition, developmental assessment of Cioclovina isotopic profiles (neonates, juveniles, sub‐adults and adults) provides patterns of transfer of stable isotope signatures throughout immature life for both δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N (increase and decrease, respectively), whereas those from Ur?ilor show little developmental shift.     

Species‐specific differences in water uptake depth of mature temperate trees vary with water availability in the soil

• Temperate tree species differ in their physiological sensitivity to declining soil moisture and drought. Although species‐specific responses to drought have often been suggested to be the result of different water uptake depths, empirical evidence for such a mechanism is scarce.
• Here we test if differences in water uptake depths can explain previously observed species‐specific physiological responses of temperate trees to drought and if the water uptake depth of different species varies in response to declining soil moisture. For this purpose, we employed stable oxygen and hydrogen isotopes of soil and xylem water that we collected over the course of three growing seasons in a mature temperate forest in Switzerland.
• Our data show that all investigated species utilise water from shallow soil layers during times of sufficient soil water supply. However, Fraxinus excelsior, Fagus sylvatica and Acer pseudoplatanus were able to shift their water uptake to deeper soil layers when soil water availability decreased in the topsoil. In contrast, Picea abies, was not able to shift its water uptake to deeper soil layers.
• We conclude from our data that more drought‐resistant tree species are able to shift their water uptake to deeper soil layers when water availability in the topsoil is becoming scarce. In addition, we were able to show that water uptake depth of temperate tree species is a trait with high plasticity that needs to be characterised across a range of environmental conditions.

     

Regional climate on the breeding grounds predicts variation in the natal origin of monarch butterflies overwintering in Mexico over 38 years

Addressing population declines of migratory insects requires linking populations across different portions of the annual cycle and understanding the effects of variation in weather and climate on productivity, recruitment, and patterns of long‐distance movement. We used stable H and C isotopes and geospatial modeling to estimate the natal origin of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) in eastern North America using over 1000 monarchs collected over almost four decades at Mexican overwintering colonies. Multinomial regression was used to ascertain which climate‐related factors best‐predicted temporal variation in natal origin across six breeding regions. The region producing the largest proportion of overwintering monarchs was the US Midwest (mean annual proportion = 0.38; 95% CI: 0.36–0.41) followed by the north‐central (0.17; 0.14–0.18), northeast (0.15; 0.11–0.16), northwest (0.12; 0.12–0.16), southwest (0.11; 0.08–0.12), and southeast (0.08; 0.07–0.11) regions. There was no evidence of directional shifts in the relative contributions of different natal regions over time, which suggests these regions are comprising the same relative proportion of the overwintering population in recent years as in the mid‐1970s. Instead, interannual variation in the proportion of monarchs from each region covaried with climate, as measured by the Southern Oscillation Index and regional‐specific daily maximum temperature and precipitation, which together likely dictate larval development rates and food plant condition. Our results provide the first robust long‐term analysis of predictors of the natal origins of monarchs overwintering in Mexico. Conservation efforts on the breeding grounds focused on the Midwest region will likely have the greatest benefit to eastern North American migratory monarchs, but the population will likely remain sensitive to regional and stochastic weather patterns.     

Long‐term increase in snow depth leads to compositional changes in arctic ectomycorrhizal fungal communities

Many arctic ecological processes are regulated by soil temperature that is tightly interconnected with snow cover distribution and persistence. Recently, various climate‐induced changes have been observed in arctic tundra ecosystems, e.g. shrub expansion, resulting in reduction in albedo and greater C fixation in aboveground vegetation as well as increased rates of soil C mobilization by microbes. Importantly, the net effects of these shifts are unknown, in part because our understanding of belowground processes is limited. Here, we focus on the effects of increased snow depth, and as a consequence, increased winter soil temperature on ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal communities in dry and moist tundra. We analyzed deep DNA sequence data from soil samples taken at a long‐term snow fence experiment in Northern Alaska. Our results indicate that, in contrast with previously observed responses of plants to increased snow depth at the same experimental site, the ECM fungal community of the dry tundra was more affected by deeper snow than the moist tundra community. In the dry tundra, both community richness and composition were significantly altered while in the moist tundra, only community composition changed significantly while richness did not. We observed a decrease in richness of Tomentella, Inocybe and other taxa adapted to scavenge the soil for labile N forms. On the other hand, richness of Cortinarius, and species with the ability to scavenge the soil for recalcitrant N forms, did not change. We further link ECM fungal traits with C soil pools. If future warmer atmospheric conditions lead to greater winter snow fall, changes in the ECM fungal community will likely influence C emissions and C fixation through altering N plant availability, fungal biomass and soil‐plant C‐N dynamics, ultimately determining important future interactions between the tundra biosphere and atmosphere.     

Age‐specific vibrissae growth rates: A tool for determining the timing of ecologically important events in Steller sea lions

Steller sea lions (SSL; Eumetopias jubatus) grow their vibrissae continually, providing a multiyear record suitable for ecological and physiological studies based on stable isotopes. An accurate age‐specific vibrissae growth rate is essential for registering a chronology along the length of the record, and for interpreting the timing of ecologically important events. We utilized four methods to estimate the growth rate of vibrissae in fetal, rookery pup, young‐of‐the‐year (YOY), yearling, subadult, and adult SSL. The majority of vibrissae were collected from SSL live‐captured in Alaska and Russia between 2000 and 2013 (n = 1,115), however, vibrissae were also collected from six adult SSL found dead on haul‐outs and rookeries during field excursions to increase the sample size of this underrepresented age group. Growth rates of vibrissae were generally slower in adult (0.44 ± 0.15 cm/mo) and subadult (0.61 ± 0.10 cm/mo) SSL than in YOY (0.87 ± 0.28 cm/mo) and fetal (0.73 ± 0.05 cm/mo) animals, but there was high individual variability in these growth rates within each age group. Some variability in vibrissae growth rates was attributed to the somatic growth rate of YOY sea lions between capture events (P = 0.014, r² = 0.206, n = 29).     

Fatty acids and stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) reveal temporal changes in narwhal (Monodon monoceros) diet linked to migration patterns

Narwhals (Monodon monoceros) are sentinel species in the Arctic and to investigate marine food web changes from 1982–2011 we examined diet using fatty acids, δ¹⁵N, and δ¹³C, in narwhals from Baffin Bay (BB) and northern Hudson Bay (NHB). We predicted temporal changes would be greater in NHB due to a significant reduction in summer ice cover. In NHB, δ¹⁵N significantly increased, δ¹³C displayed a parabolic trend, and fatty acids gradually shifted, albeit not significantly, over time. δ¹⁵N was stable, δ¹³C decreased, and fatty acids significantly changed over time in BB. Stable isotope mixing models indicated a dietary reduction in capelin and increase in Greenland halibut from 1994–2000 to 2006–2011 in BB, while capelin was an important dietary component for narwhals in NHB in recent years (2006–2011). These dietary changes may be attributed to changes in sea ice and narwhal migration. Seasonal dietary changes, as evidenced by changes in blubber fatty acids and skin and muscle stable isotopes, were not as apparent in the NHB population, which may be indicative of a reduced migratory distance. Long‐term monitoring of narwhal diet and migratory patterns associated with reduced sea ice provides invaluable information about how the marine ecosystem will redistribute with global warming.     

Temporal changes in olfactory and oviposition responses of the diamondback moth to herbivore‐induced host plants

Temporal changes in the pre‐ and post‐alighting responses of mated female diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), to two species of Brassica (Brassicaceae) host plants induced by larval feeding were studied using olfactometer and oviposition assays. Females displayed strong olfactory and oviposition preferences for herbivore‐induced common cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. cv. sugarloaf) plants over intact plants; these preferences decreased with time and disappeared by the 7th day after induction. In herbivore‐induced common cabbage plants, eggs were clustered near feeding damage on the younger leaves (leaves 5–7), whereas in intact plants, eggs were clustered on the stem and lower leaves (leaves 1–4) . However, as the time interval between larval feeding and oviposition increased, more eggs were laid on the lower leaves of induced plants. This demonstrates a change in egg distribution from the pattern associated with induced plants to that associated with intact plants. In contrast, females displayed strong olfactory and oviposition preferences for intact Chinese cabbage [Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis (Lour.) Hanelt cv. Wombok] plants over induced plants; these preferences decreased with time and disappeared by the 5th day after induction. More eggs were laid on the upper leaves (leaves 4–6) than on the lower leaves (leaves 1–3) of intact Chinese cabbage plants at first, but the distribution changed over time until there were no significant differences in the egg count between upper and lower leaves by the 4th day post induction. For both host plant species, pre‐alighting responses of moths were reliable indicators of post‐alighting responses on the first 2 days post induction. The results suggest that temporal changes in a plant's profile (chemical or otherwise) following herbivory may influence attractiveness to an insect herbivore and be accompanied by changes in olfactory and oviposition preferences.     

Development characteristics of the box‐tree moth Cydalima perspectalis and its potential distribution in Europe

The box‐tree moth Cydalima perspectalis (Walker) is an invasive pest causing severe damage to box trees (Buxus spp.). It is native to Japan, Korea and China, but established populations have been recorded in a number of locations across Europe since 2007 and the spread of the insect continues. The developmental investigations suggest that larvae overwinter mainly in their 3rd instar in Europe and that diapause is induced by a day length of about 13.5 h. One and a half to 2 months in the cold are necessary to terminate diapause. Threshold temperatures for development and number of degree‐days to complete a generation are slightly different from those calculated in previous studies in Japan. A bioclimatic (CLIMEX^®) model for C. perspectalis in Europe was developed, based on climate, ecological and developmental parameters from the literature and new field and laboratory studies on diapause termination, thermal requirements and phenology. The model was then validated with actual distribution records and phenology data. The current distribution and life history of C. perspectalis in Europe were consistent with the predicted distribution. The climate model suggests that C. perspectalis is likely to continue its spread across Europe, except for Northern Fenno‐Scandinavia, Northern Scotland and high mountain regions. The northern distribution of C. perspectalis is expected to be limited by a number of degree‐days above the temperature threshold insufficient to complete a generation, whereas its southern range is limited by the absence of a cold period necessary to resume diapause. The model predicts relatively high Ecoclimatic Indices throughout most of Europe, suggesting that the insect has the potential of becoming a pest in most of its predicted range. However, damage is likely to be higher in Southern and Central Europe where the moth is able to complete at least two generations per year.     

Foraging behaviour of Magellanic Penguins during the early chick‐rearing period at Isla de los Estados,Argentina

Studies of the at‐sea distribution and trophic ecology of penguins are essential to understand their role in the broader marine food web. Magellanic Penguins Spheniscus magellanicus have a wide distribution and their foraging behaviour varies across breeding sites and between sexes, among others. In this study, we characterized the at‐sea areas, the diving strategies and the relative trophic level of Magellanic Penguins breeding at Isla de los Estados, Argentina, during the early chick‐rearing period. In addition, we quantified the interannual, sexual and individual variability in those parameters during three breeding seasons (2011–2013) using devices recording position and dive depth, and obtained blood samples for stable isotope analysis. During the early chick‐rearing period, Magellanic Penguins showed small differences between the sexes in their foraging behaviour and large overlap in the at‐sea areas used, suggesting no intraspecific variation between sexes. Although there was interannual variability in the foraging behaviour and the trophic level of the penguins, most of the studied nests managed successfully to raise both chicks during the first stage of the breeding cycle (guard stage). The foraging ecology of Magellanic Penguins from this colony was comparable with results of past studies at other breeding colonies. This study contributes to the identification of important at‐sea areas for Magellanic Penguins at the southern edge of their distribution and also to the identification of possible threats in the study area such as interaction with fisheries.     

Stable resource polymorphism along the benthic littoral–pelagic axis in an invasive crayfish

Although intraspecific variability is now widely recognized as affecting evolutionary and ecological processes, our knowledge on the importance of intraspecific variability within invasive species is still limited. This is despite the fact that understanding the linkage between within‐population morphological divergences and the use of different trophic or spatial resources (i.e., resource polymorphism) can help to better predict their ecological impacts on recipient ecosystems. Here, we quantified the extent of resource polymorphism within populations of a worldwide invasive crayfish species, Procambarus clarkii, in 16 lake populations by comparing their trophic (estimated using stable isotope analyses) and morphological characteristics between individuals from the littoral and pelagic habitats. Our results first demonstrated that crayfish occured in both littoral and pelagic habitats of seven lakes and that the use of pelagic habitat was associated with increased abundance of littoral crayfish. We then found morphological (i.e., body and chelae shapes) and trophic divergence (i.e., reliance on littoral carbon) among individuals from littoral and pelagic habitats, highlighting the existence of resource polymorphism in invasive populations. There was no genetic differentiation between individuals from the two habitats, implying that this resource polymorphism was stable (i.e., high gene flow between individuals). Finally, we demonstrated that a divergent adaptive process was responsible for the morphological divergence in body and chela shapes between habitats while difference in littoral reliance neutrally evolved under genetic drift. These findings demonstrated that invasive P. clarkii can display strong within‐population phenotypic variability in recent populations, and this could lead to contrasting ecological impacts between littoral and pelagic individuals.     

Time and travelling costs during chick‐rearing in relation to habitat quality in Little Owls Athene noctua

In many bird species, parents adjust their home‐ranges during chick‐rearing to the availability and distribution of food resources, balancing the benefits of energy intake against the costs of travelling. Over recent decades, European agricultural landscapes have changed radically, resulting in the degradation of habitats and reductions in food resources for farmland birds. Lower foraging success and longer foraging trip distances that result from these changes are often assumed to reduce the reproductive performance of parents, although the mechanisms are not well understood. We tested the behavioural response of chick‐rearing Little Owls Athene noctua to variation in habitat diversity in an agricultural landscape. We equipped females with GPS loggers and received adequate range‐use data for 19 individuals (6063–14 439 locations per bird). In habitats dominated by homogeneous cropland habitats, home‐ranges were over 12 ha in size, whereas in highly diverse habitats they were below 2 ha. Large home‐ranges were associated with increased flight activity (117% of that of birds in small home‐ranges) and distances travelled per night (152%), increased duration of foraging trips (169%) covering larger distances (246%), and reduced nest visiting rates (81%). The study therefore provides strong correlative evidence that Little Owls breeding in monotonous farmland habitats expend more time and energy for a lower benefit in terms of feeding rates than do birds in more heterogeneous landscapes. As nestling food supply is the main determinant of chick survival, these results suggest a strong impact of farmland characteristics on local demographic rates. We suggest that preserving and creating islands of high habitat diversity within uniform open agricultural landscapes should be a key target in the conservation of Little Owl populations.     

Climate‐driven changes to the spatio‐temporal distribution of the parasitic nematode,Haemonchus contortus,in sheep in Europe

Recent climate change has resulted in changes to the phenology and distribution of invertebrates worldwide. Where invertebrates are associated with disease, climate variability and changes in climate may also affect the spatio‐temporal dynamics of disease. Due to its significant impact on sheep production and welfare, the recent increase in diagnoses of ovine haemonchosis caused by the nematode Haemonchus contortus in some temperate regions is particularly concerning. This study is the first to evaluate the impact of climate change on H. contortus at a continental scale. A model of the basic reproductive quotient of macroparasites, Q₀, adapted to H. contortus and extended to incorporate environmental stochasticity and parasite behaviour, was used to simulate Pan‐European spatio‐temporal changes in H. contortus infection pressure under scenarios of climate change. Baseline Q₀ simulations, using historic climate observations, reflected the current distribution of H. contortus in Europe. In northern Europe, the distribution of H. contortus is currently limited by temperatures falling below the development threshold during the winter months and within‐host arrested development is necessary for population persistence over winter. In southern Europe, H. contortus infection pressure is limited during the summer months by increased temperature and decreased moisture. Compared with this baseline, Q₀ simulations driven by a climate model ensemble predicted an increase in H. contortus infection pressure by the 2080s. In northern Europe, a temporal range expansion was predicted as the mean period of transmission increased by 2–3 months. A bimodal seasonal pattern of infection pressure, similar to that currently observed in southern Europe, emerges in northern Europe due to increasing summer temperatures and decreasing moisture. The predicted patterns of change could alter the epidemiology of H. contortus in Europe, affect the future sustainability of contemporary control strategies, and potentially drive local adaptation to climate change in parasite populations.