Degradation of the endoplasmic reticulum by autophagy in plants

Eukaryotic cells have developed sophisticated strategies to contend with environmental stresses faced in their lifetime. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress occurs when the accumulation of unfolded proteins within the ER exceeds the folding capacity of ER chaperones. ER stress responses have been well characterized in animals and yeast, and autophagy has been suggested to play an important role in recovery from ER stress. In plants, the unfolded protein response signaling pathways have been studied, but changes in ER morphology and ER homeostasis during ER stress have not been analyzed previously. Autophagy has been reported to function in tolerance of several stress conditions in plants, including nutrient deprivation, salt and drought stresses, oxidative stress, and pathogen infection. However, whether autophagy also functions during ER stress has not been investigated. The goal of our study was to elucidate the role and regulation of autophagy during ER stress in Arabidopsis thaliana.     

Chikungunya-induced cell death is limited by ER and oxidative stress-induced autophagy

It has been recognized that macroautophagy constitutes an important survival mechanism that allows both the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and the regulation of programmed cell death pathways (e.g., apoptosis). Although several pathogens have been described to induce autophagy, the prosurvival function of this process in infectious models remains poorly characterized. Our recent studies on chikungunya virus (CHIKV), the causative agent of major epidemics in India, Southeast Asia and southern Europe, reveal a novel mechanism by which autophagy limits the cytopathic effects of CHIKV by impinging upon virus-induced cell death pathways.     

Ferroptotic agent-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress response plays a pivotal role in the autophagic process outcome

Ferroptosis has been reported as a unique form of cell death. However, in recent years, researchers have increasingly challenged the uniqueness of ferroptosis compared to other types of cell death. In this study, we examined whether ferroptosis shares cell death pathways with other types of cell death, especially autophagy, via the autophagic process. Here, we observed that ferroptosis inducers (artesunate [ART] and erastin [ERA]) and autophagy inducers (bortezomib [BOR] and XIE62-1004) led to autophagosome formation via the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response. Unlike XIE62-1004, ART, ERA, and BOR, which affect glutathione production or utilization, induced oxidative stress responses—an increase in the levels of heme oxygenase-1 and lipid peroxidation. Oxidative stress responses were attenuated by deletion of autophagy-related gene-5 or treatment with autophagy inhibitors (bafilomycin and chloroquine). Our studies provide an overview of common death pathways—the ER stress response-associated autophagic process in ferroptosis and autophagy. We also highlight the role played by glutathione redox system in the outcome of the autophagic process.     

Salinomycin induces cell death with autophagy through activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress in human cancer cells

Salinomycin is perhaps the first promising compound that was discovered through high throughput screening in cancer stem cells. This novel agent can selectively eliminate breast and other cancer stem cells, though the mechanism of action remains unclear. In this study, we found that salinomycin induced autophagy in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that salinomycin stimulated endoplasmic reticulum stress and mediated autophagy via the ATF4-DDIT3/CHOP-TRIB3-AKT1-MTOR axis. Moreover, we found that the autophagy induced by salinomycin played a prosurvival role in human NSCLC cells and attenuated the apoptotic cascade. We also showed that salinomycin triggered more apoptosis and less autophagy in A549 cells in which CDH1 expression was inhibited, suggesting that the inhibition of autophagy might represent a promising strategy to target cancer stem cells. In conclusion, these findings provide evidence that combination treatment with salinomycin and pharmacological autophagy inhibitors will be an effective therapeutic strategy for eliminating cancer cells as well as cancer stem cells.     

白花蛇舌草多糖提取物对喉癌Hep-2细胞内质网自噬的影响*

目的:探讨白花蛇舌草多糖提取物(HDPE)对喉癌Hep-2细胞内质网自噬的影响。方法:实验分为对照组、HDPE 100、200、400 mg/L组和3-MA(自噬抑制剂)组,噻唑盐比色法(MTT)检测各组细胞培养24 h、48 h、72 h后增殖抑制率;原位末端转移酶标记法(TUNEL)法检测各组培养48 h细胞凋亡情况;单丹黄酰尸胺(MDC)染色观察各组培养48 h细胞自噬体及自噬溶酶体的变化;透射电镜观察培养48 h细胞内质网周围自噬囊泡的产生情况;蛋白印迹法(Western blot)检测各组培养48 h细胞Beclin-1蛋白(Beclin-1)、微管相关轻链蛋白3Ⅰ(LC3Ⅰ)、微管相关轻链蛋白3Ⅱ(LC3Ⅱ)、葡萄糖调节蛋白 78(GRP78)、活化转录因子6(ATF6)及CCAAT 增强子结合蛋白同源蛋白(CHOP)表达。结果:与对照组比较,HDPE 100、200、400 mg/L组和3-MA组细胞增殖抑制率、凋亡指数AI升高,MDC阳性细胞率量降低,内质网周围自噬囊泡减少,GRP78、ATF6及CHOP表达及LC3Ⅰ/LC3Ⅱ比值升高,Beclin-1表达降低(P＜0.05);与3-MA组比较,HDPE 400 mg/L组细胞增殖抑制率、凋亡指数AI升高,MDC阳性细胞率、GRP78、ATF6及CHOP表达及LC3Ⅰ/LC3Ⅱ比值升高,Beclin-1表达降低(P＜0.05)。结论:HDPE可能通过抑制喉癌Hep-2细胞内质网自噬,促进细胞内质网应激凋亡,进而抑制Hep-2细胞增殖能力。     

缺血性心肌病大鼠心肌细胞自噬在心肌重塑中的作用*

目的:研究缺血性心肌病大鼠心肌细胞自噬在心肌重塑中的作用。方法:36 只雄性SD大鼠分为正常对照组、假手术组、缺血性心肌病组( n=12),3组大鼠术前行心脏彩超检查,正常对照组大鼠不进行处理;假手术组大鼠开胸后不结扎冠状动脉,关闭胸腔;缺血性心肌病组大鼠开胸结扎冠状动脉20 min后,解开结扎线行再灌注后关闭胸腔,3组大鼠术后4周行心脏彩超检查后处死大鼠取心脏行HE染色、masson染色,观察心肌病理改变,用Western blot技术检测各组大鼠心肌细胞GRP78、LC3-I、LC3-II、Beclin-I表达及LC3-II/LC3-I比值的变化。结果:与正常组及假手术组比较,缺血性心肌病大鼠心室扩大,EF值降低;心肌排列紊乱,心肌纤维化增加;线粒体空泡化严重;内质网应激关键蛋白GRP78上调;自噬相关蛋白LC3-I、LC3-II、Beclin-I及LC3-II/LC3-I比值增加。结论:缺血性心肌病大鼠心肌细胞中内质网应激和自噬可能在心肌重塑中具有重要作用。     

Mitochondrial BCL-2 inhibits AMBRA1-induced autophagy

BECLIN 1 is a central player in macroautophagy. AMBRA1, a BECLIN 1-interacting protein, positively regulates the BECLIN 1-dependent programme of autophagy. In this study, we show that AMBRA1 binds preferentially the mitochondrial pool of the antiapoptotic factor BCL-2, and that this interaction is disrupted following autophagy induction. Further, AMBRA1 can compete with both mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum-resident BCL-2 (mito-BCL-2 and ER-BCL-2, respectively) to bind BECLIN 1. Moreover, after autophagy induction, AMBRA1 is recruited to BECLIN 1. Altogether, these results indicate that, in normal conditions, a pool of AMBRA1 binds preferentially mito-BCL-2; after autophagy induction, AMBRA1 is released from BCL-2, consistent with its ability to promote BECLIN 1 activity. In addition, we found that the binding between AMBRA1 and mito-BCL-2 is reduced during apoptosis. Thus, a dynamic interaction exists between AMBRA1 and BCL-2 at the mitochondria that could regulate both BECLIN 1-dependent autophagy and apoptosis.     

NOX4 regulates autophagy during energy deprivation

NADPH oxidase is a cellular enzyme devoted to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). NOX4 and NOX2 are the main isoforms of NADPH oxidase in the cardiovascular system. In our recent study, we demonstrated that NOX4, but not NOX2, is a critical mediator of the cardiomyocyte adaptive response to energy stress. NOX4 activity and protein levels are increased in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but not in mitochondria of cardiomyocytes during the early phase of energy deprivation. NOX4-derived production of ROS in the ER is a critical event that activates autophagy through stimulation of the EIF2AK3/PERK-EIF2S1/eIF-2α-ATF4 pathway. NOX4-dependent autophagy is an important mechanism to preserve cellular energy and limit cell death in energy-deprived cardiomyocytes. Aside from elucidating a crucial physiological function of NOX4 during cellular energy stress, our study dissects a novel signaling mechanism that regulates autophagy under this condition.     

Manganese activates autophagy to alleviate endoplasmic reticulum stress–induced apoptosis via PERK pathway

Overexposure to manganese (Mn) is neurotoxic. Our previous research has demonstrated that the interaction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and autophagy participates in the early stage of Mn‐mediated neurotoxicity in mouse. However, the mechanisms of ER stress signalling pathways in the initiation of autophagy remain confused. In the current study, we first validated that ER stress–mediated cell apoptosis is accompanied by autophagy in SH‐SY5Y cells. Then, we found that inhibiting ER stress with 4‐phenylbutyrate (4‐PBA) decreased ER stress–related protein expression and reduced cell apoptosis, whereas blocking autophagy with 3‐methyladenine (3‐MA) increased cell apoptosis. These data indicate that protective autophagy was activated to alleviate ER stress–mediated apoptosis. Knockdown of the protein kinase RNA‐like ER kinase (PERK) gene inhibited Mn‐induced autophagy and weakened the interaction between ATF4 and the LC3 promoter. Our results reveal a novel molecular mechanism in which ER stress may regulate autophagy via the PERK/eIF2α/ATF4 signalling pathway. Additionally, Mn may activate protective autophagy to alleviate ER stress–mediated apoptosis via the PERK/eIF2α/ATF4 signalling pathway in SH‐SY5Y cells.     

Deficiency in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway reveals the toxic potential of autophagy under ER stress conditions

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced cell death is normally associated with activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, which is characterized by CYCS (cytochrome c, somatic) release, apoptosome formation, and caspase activation, resulting in cell death. In this study, we demonstrate that under conditions of ER stress cells devoid of CASP9/caspase-9 or BAX and BAK1, and therefore defective in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, still undergo a delayed form of cell death associated with the activation of caspases, therefore revealing the existence of an alternative stress-induced caspase activation pathway. We identified CASP8/caspase-8 as the apical protease in this caspase cascade, and found that knockdown of either of the key autophagic genes, ATG5 or ATG7, impacted on CASP8 activation and cell death induction, highlighting the crucial role of autophagy in the activation of this novel ER stress-induced death pathway. In line with this, we identified a protein complex composed of ATG5, FADD, and pro-CASP8 whose assembly coincides with caspase activation and cell death induction. Together, our results reveal the toxic potential of autophagy in cells undergoing ER stress that are defective in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and suggest a model in which the autophagosome functions as a platform facilitating pro-CASP8 activation. Chemoresistance, a common problem in the treatment of cancer, is frequently caused by the downregulation of key mitochondrial death effector proteins. Alternate stress-induced apoptotic pathways, such as the one described here, may become of particular relevance for tackling the problem of chemoresistance in cancer cells.     

Deficiency in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway reveals the toxic potential of autophagy under ER stress conditions

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced cell death is normally associated with activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, which is characterized by CYCS (cytochrome c, somatic) release, apoptosome formation, and caspase activation, resulting in cell death. In this study, we demonstrate that under conditions of ER stress cells devoid of CASP9/caspase-9 or BAX and BAK1, and therefore defective in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, still undergo a delayed form of cell death associated with the activation of caspases, therefore revealing the existence of an alternative stress-induced caspase activation pathway. We identified CASP8/caspase-8 as the apical protease in this caspase cascade, and found that knockdown of either of the key autophagic genes, ATG5 or ATG7, impacted on CASP8 activation and cell death induction, highlighting the crucial role of autophagy in the activation of this novel ER stress-induced death pathway. In line with this, we identified a protein complex composed of ATG5, FADD, and pro-CASP8 whose assembly coincides with caspase activation and cell death induction. Together, our results reveal the toxic potential of autophagy in cells undergoing ER stress that are defective in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and suggest a model in which the autophagosome functions as a platform facilitating pro-CASP8 activation. Chemoresistance, a common problem in the treatment of cancer, is frequently caused by the downregulation of key mitochondrial death effector proteins. Alternate stress-induced apoptotic pathways, such as the one described here, may become of particular relevance for tackling the problem of chemoresistance in cancer cells.     

Inhibition of autophagy and enhancement of endoplasmic reticulum stress increase sensitivity of osteosarcoma Saos‐2 cells to cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN55,212‐2

WIN55,212‐2, a cannabinoid receptor agonist, can activate cannabinoid receptors, which has proven anti‐tumour effects in several tumour types. Studies showed that WIN can inhibit tumour cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in diverse cancers. However, the role and mechanism of WIN in osteosarcoma are still unclear. In this study, we examined the effect of WIN55,212‐2 on osteosarcoma cell line Saos‐2 in terms of cell viability and apoptosis. Meanwhile, we further explored the role of endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy in apoptosis induced by WIN55,212‐2. Our results showed that the cell proliferation of Saos‐2 was inhibited by WIN55,212‐2 in a dose‐dependent and time‐dependent manner. WIN55,212‐2‐induced Saos‐2 apoptosis through mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Meanwhile, WIN55,212‐2 can induce endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy in Saos‐2 cells. Inhibition of autophagy and enhancement of endoplasmic reticulum stress increased apoptosis induced by WIN55,212‐2 in Saos‐2 cells. These findings indicated that WIN55,212‐2 in combination with autophagic inhibitor or endoplasmic reticulum stress activator may shed new light on osteosarcoma treatment. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Iturin A-like lipopeptides from Bacillus subtilis trigger apoptosis,paraptosis, and autophagy in Caco-2 cells

This study revealed that iturin A-like lipopeptides produced by Bacillus subtillis induced both paraptosis and apoptosis in heterogeneous human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells. Autophagy was simultaneously induced in Caco-2 cells treated with iturin A-like lipopeptides at the early stage and inhibited at the later stage. A western blot analysis showed that the lipopeptides induced apoptosis in Caco-2 cells via a mitochondrial-dependent pathway, as indicated by upregulated expression of the apoptotic genes bax and bad and downregulated expression of the antiapoptotic gene bcl-2. The induction of paraptosis in Caco-2 cells was indicated by the occurrence of many cytoplasmic vacuoles accompanied by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) dilatation and mitochondrial swelling and dysfunction. ER stress also occurred with significant increases in reactive oxygen species and Ca²⁺ levels in cells. Autophagy was detected by a transmission electron microscopy analysis and by upregulated expression of LC3-II and downregulated expression of LC3-I. The inhibition of autophagy at the later stage was shown by upregulated expression of p62. This study revealed the capability of iturin A-like B. subtilis lipopeptides to simultaneously execute antitumor potential via multiple pathways.     

ER-mitochondria signaling regulates autophagy

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria form tight functional contacts that regulate several key cellular processes. The formation of these contacts involves “tethering proteins” that function to recruit regions of ER to mitochondria. The integral ER protein VAPB (VAMP associated protein B and C) binds to the outer mitochondrial membrane protein, RMDN3/PTPIP51 (regulator of microtubule dynamics 3) to form one such set of tethers. Recently, we showed that the VAPB-RMDN3 tethers regulate macroautophagy/autophagy. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of VAPB or RMDN3 to loosen ER-mitochondria contacts stimulates autophagosome formation, whereas overexpression of VAPB or RMDN3 to tighten contacts inhibit their formation. Artificial tethering of ER and mitochondria via expression of a synthetic linker protein also reduces autophagy and this artificial tether rescues the effects of VAPB- or RMDN3-targeted siRNA loss on autophagosome formation. Finally, our studies revealed that the modulatory effects of ER-mitochondria contacts on autophagy involve their role in mediating ITPR (inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor) delivery of Ca²⁺ from ER stores to mitochondria.