钙结合蛋白对花粉生长发育调控研究进展

植物钙结合蛋白存在于花粉管中,通过直接或间接结合Ca~(2+),定位膜结构,形成Ca~(2+)信号通道,发生信号转导,对花粉发育及花粉管的生长起到调控作用。目前已明确以钙调蛋白(CAM)、钙依赖型蛋白激酶(CDPK)、类钙调蛋白(CML)、类钙调素B类蛋白(CBL)和激酶蛋白(CIPK)为主的植物钙结合蛋白在调控花粉发育及花粉管生长方面的重要作用。该文主要对近年来国内外已经明确的各类钙结合蛋白家族以及家族成员间不同的作用机理的研究进展进行综述,并举例阐述了钙结合蛋白家族中各类成员对花粉管特定的作用方式及调控作用,最后对今后相关领域的研究前景进行了展望。     

拟南芥CBL9的质膜定位对花粉管顶端生长的影响

旨在揭示拟南芥CBL9(Calcineurin B-like protein 9)在花粉管顶端生长中的作用。基于花粉管瞬时表达体系,通过基因枪技术将带有黄色荧光蛋白(YFP)标签的CBL9在烟草花粉中进行瞬时表达,观察其亚细胞定位及过表达表型。针对CBL9的N端酰基化的保守位点,通过点突变技术构建CBL9G2A突变体,对比研究其表型及定位的改变情况。结果显示CBL9-YFP定位于花粉管顶端质膜及颗粒状细胞器上,CBL9过量表达可以引起显著的花粉管去极化生长。而CBL9G2A-YFP则表现出非特异性的胞内弥散定位,同时CBL9G2A过量表达没有显著影响花粉管的顶端生长。CBL9的N端酰基化位点是CBL9质膜定位的重要因素,而正确定位的CBL9才能发挥调控花粉管生长的相关功能。     

钙依赖蛋白激酶CPK14在花粉管生长中的功能分析

旨在揭示钙依赖蛋白激酶CPK14在花粉管极性生长中的生物学功能。利用基因芯片数据绘制花粉高量表达CPK的表达图谱。去除CPK14位于C端的自抑制区及Ca~(2+)结合区,保留完整的激酶区及N端可变区,构建组成激活型(CA)的CPK14(CA-CPK14)。利用基因枪技术在烟草花粉中进行瞬时表达,比较分析全长CPK14、CA-CPK14及GFP对照之间的花粉管表型差异。通过CA-CPK14与GFP-RIC4ΔC(活性ROP1的标记物)共同表达试验,分析CA-CPK14对ROP1活性的影响。结果显示,CPK家族中存在8个花粉高量表达成员(其中包括CPK14),它们在花粉中高量表达而在其他组织中表达较少。CPK14过量表达可以造成花粉管顶端的膨大,而持续激活且不受Ca~(2+)调控的CA-CPK14则抑制花粉管萌发及生长。ROP1是花粉管生长的调控关键因子,CA-CPK14的表达可以抑制活性ROP1的标记物(GFP-RIC4ΔC)在花粉管顶端的积累与分布,说明CPK14在ROP1所介导的花粉管生长调控机制中发挥一定的作用。     

林烟草蛋白激酶NsylCIPK3基因的克隆与功能分析

CIPK蛋白激酶家族(CBL-interacting protein kinase)是一类丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族,与类钙调磷酸酶B亚基CBL(calcineurin B-like protein)蛋白共同形成CBL-CIPK网络,在植物的生长发育和逆境胁迫响应过程中发挥重要作用。烟草中该家族的研究还比较少,本研究从林烟草(Nicotiana sylvestris)中获得一个CIPK家族基因,该基因与拟南芥和杨树中的CIPK3同源性分别为68.4%和87.5%,将其命名为Nsyl CIPK3。氨基酸序列分析表明,Nsyl CIPK3具有CIPK蛋白家族的典型结构特征,在N端和C端分别具有典型的激活环结构域和NAF结构域。进化树分析显示,Nsyl CIPK3属于CIPK蛋白亚家族Ⅱ。表达模式研究表明,该基因在林烟草的叶和腋芽中的表达量相对较高,在主根中的表达量次之,在侧根、茎、花瓣和萼片中的表达量相对较低,并且在烟草成熟期的叶中表达量明显升高。在高盐、紫外光和低钾胁迫下该基因的表达发生不同程度的上调。酵母双杂交结果显示,Nsyl CIPK3可与Nsyl CBL9互作。推测Nsyl CIPK3可能通过与Nsyl CBL9互作形成信号通路,激活下游靶蛋白,参与烟草响应非生物逆境胁迫的信号转导过程。     

花粉管钙信号特性及其调控研究进展

花粉管在花柱中生长受多个信号分子的协同调控,钙离子在其中发挥着重要作用.钙是一种重要的第二信使,它将外界的多种生物或非生物信息转化为对细胞内基因表达以及细胞生理反应的调控.钙信号表达方式是胞内自由钙浓度的特异性变化.该文对国内外近年来有关花粉管生长中钙信号特性及其调控的研究进展,如花粉管尖端自由钙离子浓度梯度与胞内钙振荡、花粉管质膜钙转运体的鉴定及其调控特性、花粉管钙信号与微丝和ROP蛋白的关系以及花粉管钙信号与植物自交不亲和性反应的关系等进行综述,为深入开展相关研究提供参考.     

蛋白质可逆磷酸化对花粉管生长的调控作用

花粉管极性生长受多种信号与代谢过程的调控,主要包括Rop GTPase信号途径、磷脂酰肌醇信号通路、Ca²⁺信号途径、肌动蛋白动态变化、囊泡运输、细胞壁重塑等,这些过程都受到蛋白质可逆磷酸化作用的调节。如：(1) Rop调节蛋白(GEF、GDI和GAP)的可逆磷酸化可以改变其活性,从而调节Rop GTPase;同时,蛋白激酶还可能作为Rop下游的效应器分子参与Rop下游信号途径的调节;(2) 蛋白质可逆磷酸化作用既能够激活/失活质膜上的Ca²⁺通道或Ca²⁺泵,又参与调节胞内贮存Ca²⁺的释放,从而调控花粉管尖端Ca²⁺梯度的形成;此外,蛋白激酶还作为Ca²⁺信号的感受器,磷酸化相应的靶蛋白,参与Ca²⁺信号下游途径的调节;(3) 肌动蛋白结合蛋白(ADF和Profilin)的活性也受到蛋白质可逆磷酸化的调节,进而调控肌动蛋白聚合与解聚之间的动态平衡;(4) 蛋白质磷酸化作用调节胞吞/胞吐相关蛋白的活性,并调控质膜的磷脂代谢,从而参与调控囊泡运输过程;(5) 胞质丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶和蔗糖合酶的可逆磷酸化可以调节其在花粉管中的功能与分布模式,参与花粉管细胞壁重塑;(6) 转录调节蛋白与真核生物翻译起始因子的可逆磷酸化可以改变其活性,从而调控RNA转录与蛋白质合成。文章主要综述了花粉管生长过程中重要蛋白质的可逆磷酸化作用对上述关键事件的调节。     

植物向重力反应中PIN-FORMED介导的生长素极性运输调控

植物的向性,即植物对光或重力等环境刺激信号产生的定向生长反应。在向重力性反应中,植物器官将重力感知为定向环境信号,来控制其器官的生长方向以促进生存。植物激素生长素及其极性运输在植物向重力反应中起着决定性的调控作用。质膜定位的生长素输出蛋白PIN-FORMED(PIN)通过动态的亚细胞极性定位,改变生长素运输的方向以响应环境刺激,由此植物器官间建立的生长素浓度梯度是细胞差异化伸长和器官弯曲的基础,来调控植物的形态建成和生长发育过程。本文主要讨论发生在植物重力感受细胞内早期重力感知和信号转导机制的最新研究进展、PIN介导的生长素极性运输、PIN的极性定位以及质膜蛋白丰度的调控机制等。     

植物类LORELEI糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定蛋白研究进展

类LORELEI糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定蛋白(LLG)定位于细胞质膜外表面, 作为CrRLK1L家族类受体激酶的分子伴侣, 参与其转运和胞外信号转导, 从而调控植物生殖发育以及免疫与逆境应答等过程。LLG2/3与ANX和BUPS互作, 调控花粉管顶端生长与爆裂。LLG1与FER (FERONIA)互作, 调控下游的NADPH氧化酶产生活性氧(ROS), 促进根部细胞伸长和根毛生长。此外, LLG1作为FER的共受体, 与快速碱化因子(RALFs)互作, 调节G蛋白β亚基(AGB1)和质膜H ⁺-ATPase功能、胞内ROS稳态以及Ca ²⁺瞬变, 引起根部和气孔的盐应答反应。LLG1与FLS2和EFR互作激活下游RbohD, 调节ROS产生, 调控植物免疫应答。该文综述了植物LLG的相关研究进展, 可为深入理解LLG的生物学功能提供重要信息。     

花粉管生长和极性引导的孢子体和配子体控制研究进展

双受精是被子植物特有的生殖方式,精细胞只有通过花粉管穿过花柱才能到达子房、胚珠受精。花粉管在母本组织中的生长和引导包括孢子体控制(sporophytic control)和配子体控制(gametophytic control)两个连续的过程,现已克隆出不同阶段花粉管生长和引导的基因,通过分析其表达调控揭示出花粉管生长和引导的分子机制。该文就近年来国内外有关花粉管生长和极性引导的调控机制研究进展进行综述,并对禾本科(Poaceae)和十字花科(Brassicaceae)植物花粉管引导的异同点进行了比较分析。     

小麦CBL结合蛋白激酶基因TaCIPK16的克隆及特征分析

类钙调磷酸酶亚基B蛋白(calcineurin B-1ike protein,CBL)作为一类钙离子结合蛋白,通过与一类蛋白激酶(CBL-interacting protein kinase,ClPK)结合,从而在钙信号依赖的生理生化过程中发挥作用。该研究在条锈菌诱导的小麦叶片中克隆获得CIPK家族中1个基因TaCIPK16,并利用qRT-PCR技术、酵母双杂交技术及亚细胞定位技术分析了其功能特性。序列分析表明,TaCIPK16编码447个氨基酸,包含保守的激酶催化结构域及调控结构域,与水稻、拟南芥CIPK蛋白具有高度相似性。酵母双杂交分析验证显示,TaCIPK16与TaCBL4和TaCBL9存在强烈互作。定量分析表明,TaCIPK16受到条锈菌的诱导表达,在小麦与条锈菌互作过程中呈显著差异表达趋势。综上结果,TaCIPK16可能作为正调控因子参与了小麦对条锈菌的抗病防卫反应。     

A Genome-wide Functional Characterization of Arabidopsis Regulatory Calcium Sensors in Pollen Tubes

Calcium, an ubiquitous second messenger, plays an essential and versatile role in cellular signaling. The diverse function of calcium signals is achieved by an excess of calcium sensors. Plants possess large numbers of calcium sensors, most of which have not been functionally characterized. To identify physiologically relevant calcium sensors in a specific cell type, we conducted a genome-wide functional survey in pollen tubes, for which spatiotemporal calcium signals are well-characterized and required for polarized tip growth. Pollen-specific members of calmodulin (CaM), CaM-like (CML), calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) and calcineurin B-like protein (CBL) families were tagged with green fluorescence protein (GFP) and their localization patterns and overexpression phenotypes were characterized in tobacco pollen tubes. We found that several fusion proteins showed distinct overexpression phenotypes and subcellular localization patterns. CDPK24-GFP was localized to the vegetative nucleus and the generative cell/sperms. CDPK32-GFP caused severe growth depolarization. CBL2-GFP and CBL3-GFP exhibited dynamic patterns of subcellular localization, including several endomembrane compartments, the apical plasma membrane (PM), and cytoskeleton-like structures in pollen tubes. Their overexpression also inhibited pollen tube elongation and induced growth depolarization. These putative calcium sensors are excellent candidates for the calcium sensors responsible for the regulation of calcium homeostasis and calcium-dependent tip growth and growth oscillation in pollen tubes.     

Arabidopsis Microtubule-Destabilizing Protein 25 Functions in Pollen Tube Growth by Severing Actin Filaments

The formation of distinct actin filament arrays in the subapical region of pollen tubes is crucial for pollen tube growth. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the organization and dynamics of the actin filaments in this region remain to be determined. This study shows that Arabidopsis thaliana MICROTUBULE-DESTABILIZING PROTEIN25 (MDP25) has the actin filament–severing activity of an actin binding protein. This protein negatively regulated pollen tube growth by modulating the organization and dynamics of actin filaments in the subapical region of pollen tubes. MDP25 loss of function resulted in enhanced pollen tube elongation and inefficient fertilization. MDP25 bound directly to actin filaments and severed individual actin filaments, in a manner that was dramatically enhanced by Ca²⁺, in vitro. Analysis of a mutant that bears a point mutation at the Ca²⁺ binding sites demonstrated that the subcellular localization of MDP25 was determined by cytosolic Ca²⁺ level in the subapical region of pollen tubes, where MDP25 was disassociated from the plasma membrane and moved into the cytosol. Time-lapse analysis showed that the F-actin-severing frequency significantly decreased and a high density of actin filaments was observed in the subapical region of mdp25-1 pollen tubes. This study reveals a mechanism whereby calcium enhances the actin filament–severing activity of MDP25 in the subapical region of pollen tubes to modulate pollen tube growth.     

The regulation of actin organization by actin-depolymerizing factor in elongating pollen tubes

Pollen tube elongation is a polarized cell growth process that transports the male gametes from the stigma to the ovary for fertilization inside the ovules. Actomyosin-driven intracellular trafficking and active actin remodeling in the apical and subapical regions of pollen tubes are both important aspects of this rapid tip growth process. Actin-depolymerizing factor (ADF) and cofilin are actin binding proteins that enhance the depolymerization of microfilaments at their minus, or slow-growing, ends. A pollen-specific ADF from tobacco, NtADF1, was used to dissect the role of ADF in pollen tube growth. Overexpression of NtADF1 resulted in the reduction of fine, axially oriented actin cables in transformed pollen tubes and in the inhibition of pollen tube growth in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, the proper regulation of actin turnover by NtADF1 is critical for pollen tube growth. When expressed at a moderate level in pollen tubes elongating in in vitro cultures, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged NtADF1 (GFP-NtADF1) associated predominantly with a subapical actin mesh composed of short actin filaments and with long actin cables in the shank. Similar labeling patterns were observed for GFP-NtADF1-expressing pollen tubes elongating within the pistil. A Ser-6-to-Asp conversion abolished the interaction between NtADF1 and F-actin in elongating pollen tubes and reduced its inhibitory effect on pollen tube growth significantly, suggesting that phosphorylation at Ser-6 may be a prominent regulatory mechanism for this pollen ADF. As with some ADF/cofilin, the in vitro actin-depolymerizing activity of recombinant NtADF1 was enhanced by slightly alkaline conditions. Because a pH gradient is known to exist in the apical region of elongating pollen tubes, it seems plausible that the in vivo actin-depolymerizing activity of NtADF1, and thus its contribution to actin dynamics, may be regulated spatially by differential H(+) concentrations in the apical region of elongating pollen tubes.     

F-actin organization and pollen tube tip growth in Arabidopsis are dependent on the gametophyte-specific Armadillo repeat protein ARO1

The signal-mediated and spatially controlled assembly and dynamics of actin are crucial for maintaining shape, motility, and tip growth of eukaryotic cells. We report that a novel Armadillo repeat protein in Arabidopsis thaliana, ARMADILLO REPEAT ONLY1 (ARO1), is of fundamental importance for polar growth and F-actin organization in tip-growing pollen tubes. ARO1 is specifically expressed in the vegetative cell of pollen as well as in the egg cell. ARO1-GFP (for green fluorescent protein) fusion proteins accumulate most notably in pollen tube tips and partially colocalize with F-actin in the shank of pollen tubes. ARO1 knockout results in a highly disorganized actin cytoskeleton, growth depolarization, and ultimately tube growth arrest. Tip-localized ARO1-GFP is spatially shifted toward the future site of tip growth, indicating a role of ARO1 in the signaling network controlling tip growth and regulating actin organization. After the pollen tube discharges its contents into the receptive synergid, ARO1-GFP colocalizes with emerging F-actin structures near the site of sperm cell fusion, suggesting additional participation in the mechanism of sperm cell tracking toward the female gametes. The variable localization of ARO1 in the cytoplasm, the nucleus, and at the plasma membrane, however, indicates a multifunctional role like that of beta-catenin/Armadillo and the p120 catenins.     

Analysis of the tip-to-base gradient of CaM in pollen tube pulsant growth using in vivo CaM–GFP system

Ca²⁺-CaM signaling is involved in pollen tube development. However, the distribution and function of CaM and the downstream components of Ca²⁺-CaM signal in pollen tube development still need more exploration. Here we obtained the CaM–GFP fusion protein transgenic line of Nicotiana tobacum SRI, which allowed us to monitor CaM distribution pattern in vivo and provided a useful tool to observe CaM response to various exogenous stimulations and afforded solid evidences of the essential functions of CaM in pollen tube growth. CaM–GFP fusion gene was constructed under the control of Lat52-7 pollen-specific promoter and transformed into Nicotiana tobacum SRI. High level of CaM–GFP fluorescence was detected at the germinal pores and the tip-to-base gradient of fluorescence was observed in developing pollen tubes. The distribution of CaM at apical dome had close relationship with the pulsant growth mode of pollen tubes: when CaM aggregated at the apical dome, pollen tubes stepped into growth state; When CaM showed non-polarized distribution, pollen tubes stopped growing. In addition, after affording exogenous Ca²⁺, calmidazolium (antagonism of CaM) or Brefeldin A (an inhibitor of membrane trafficking), CaM turned to a uniform distribution at the apical dome and pollen tube growth was held back. Taken together, our results showed that CaM played a vital role in pollen tube elongation and growth rate, and the oscillation of tip-to-base gradient of CaM was required for the normal pulsant growth of pollen tube.     

Pollen vegetative cell-specific expression of Bra r 1: useful tool for observation of the vegetative nucleus and identification of transgenic pollen by nuclear-targeted GFP

Bra r 1 encodes a novel Ca²⁺-binding protein specifically expressed in pollen and is localized in cytoplasm of pollen and pollen tubes. In this study, we demonstrated the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) with a nuclear localization signal under the control of Bra r 1 promoter in tobacco pollen. A fluorescent signal was detected in the vegetative nucleus (VN) but not in generative and sperm cell nuclei, indicating pollen vegetative cell-specific expression of Bra r 1. The fluorescent signal in elongating pollen tubes was stronger than that in mature pollen, indicating that the expression of Bra r 1 was more activated during pollen tube growth. This result suggests that Bra r 1 protein might be necessary for pollen tube growth. The pattern of green fluorescence in the VN revealed that VN chromatin is dispersed during the mid-bicellular pollen stage and condensed at the mature stage. This suggests that the level of chromatin condensation might be linked with gene expression in pollen vegetative cells. We also found that the expression of GFP and its targeting of the VN have no detrimental effect on pollen maturation and pollen tube growth. Expression of GFP in pollen thus makes rapid non-destructive monitoring of transgenic pollen and pollen tubes possible. The GFP which moved into the VN was found to be a convenient tool for observation of the VN and could be useful as a selectable marker of transgenic pollen for the analysis of pollen-specific genes. Received: 6 December 2000 / Revision accepted: 20 March 2001     

Calcium-dependent protein kinase isoforms in Petunia have distinct functions in pollen tube growth, including regulating polarity

Calcium is a key regulator of pollen tube growth, but little is known concerning the downstream components of the signaling pathways involved. We identified two pollen-expressed calmodulin-like domain protein kinases from Petunia inflata, CALMODULIN-LIKE DOMAIN PROTEIN KINASE1 (Pi CDPK1) and Pi CDPK2. Transient overexpression or expression of catalytically modified Pi CDPK1 disrupted pollen tube growth polarity, whereas expression of Pi CDPK2 constructs inhibited tube growth but not polarity. Pi CDPK1 exhibited plasma membrane localization most likely mediated by acylation, and we present evidence that suggests this localization is critical to the biological function of this kinase. Pi CDPK2 substantially localized to as yet unidentified internal membrane compartments, and this localization was again, at least partially, mediated by acylation. In contrast with Pi CDPK1, altering the localization of Pi CDPK2 did not noticeably alter the effect of overexpressing this isoform on pollen tube growth. Ca(2+) requirements for Pi CDPK1 activation correlated closely with Ca(2+) concentrations measured in the growth zone at the pollen tube apex. Interestingly, loss of polarity associated with overexpression of Pi CDPK1 was associated with elevated cytosolic Ca(2+) throughout the bulging tube tip, suggesting that Pi CDPK1 may participate in maintaining Ca(2+) homeostasis. These results are discussed in relation to previous models for Ca(2+) regulation of pollen tube growth.     

Visualization of plastid movement in the pollen tube of Arabidopsis thaliana

Organelle dynamics in the plant male gametophyte has received attention for its importance in pollen tube growth and cytoplasmic inheritance. We recently revealed the dynamic behaviors of plastids in living Arabidopsis pollen grains and tubes, using an inherent promoter-driven FtsZ1–green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion. Here, we further monitored the movement of pollen tube plastids with an actin1 promoter-driven, stroma-targeted yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). In elongating pollen tubes, most plastids localized to the tube shank, where they displayed either retarded and unsteady motion, or fast, directional, and long-distance movement along the tube polarity. Efficient plastid tracking further revealed a population of tip-forwarding plastids that undergo a fluctuating motion(s) before traveling backward. The behavior of YFP-labeled plastids in pollen basically resembled that of FtsZ1–GFP-labeled plastids, thus validating the use of FtsZ1–GFP for simultaneous visualization of the stroma and the plastid-dividing FtsZ ring.     

Expression of Bra r 1 gene in transgenic tobacco and Bra r 1 promoter activity in pollen of various plant species

Bra r 1 encodes a Ca2+-binding protein specifically expressed in anthers of Brassica rapa. In this study, we isolated a genomic clone of Bra r 1 and found sequences similar to Pollen Box core motifs and LAT56/59 box, pollen-specific cis-acting element, in the 5' upstream region of Bra r 1. Reporter gene fusion revealed that the Bra r 1 promoter directs male gametophytic expression in Nicotiana tabacum, Arabidopsis thaliana and B. napus, showing strong expression in mature pollen grains similar to that of endogenous Bra r 1. Genomic DNA of Bra r 1 was introduced into tobacco plants and the highest accumulation of Bra r 1 protein was observed in mature pollen in the same manner as reporter gene expression. Using in vitro-germinated pollen tubes of transgenic tobacco, we firstly demonstrated the subcellular localization of Bra r 1 in pollen tubes. Bra r 1 protein was distributed throughout the pollen tube of transgenic tobacco and slightly intense signals of Bra r 1 were observed in the tip region. In long-germinated pollen tubes, Bra r 1 was detected only in the cytoplasmic compartments while no signals were observed in the empty part of the pollen tube, indicating that cytoplasmic movement toward the tube tip is accompanied by Bra r 1. Hence, we suggest that Bra r 1 is involved in pollen germination and pollen tube growth.     

ROP GTPase regulation of pollen tube growth through the dynamics of tip-localized F-actin

Pollen tubes expand by tip growth and extend directionally toward the ovule to deliver sperms during pollination. They provide an excellent model system for the study of cell polarity control and tip growth, because they grow into uniformly shaped cylindrical cells in culture. Mechanisms underlying tip growth are poorly understood in pollen tubes. It has been demonstrated that ROP1, a pollen-specific member of the plant-specific Rop subfamily of Rho GTPases, is a central regulator of pollen tube tip growth. Recent studies in pollen from Arabidopsis and other species have revealed a ROP-mediated signalling network that is localized to the apical PM region of pollen tubes. The results provide evidence that the localization of this signalling network establishes the site for tip growth and the localized activation of this signalling network regulates the dynamics of tip F-actin. These results have shown that the ROP1-mediated dynamics of tip F-actin is a key cellular mechanism behind tip growth in pollen tubes. Current understanding of the molecular basis for the regulation of the tip actin dynamics will be discussed.