真菌疏水蛋白HGFI自组装分子机制和材料表面修饰功能的研究

真菌疏水蛋白是高等丝状真菌在特定生理时期分泌的一类小分子量、两亲性蛋白质,其可以在两相界面处通过自我装配形成纳米级蛋白膜,改变介质表面的亲水性和疏水性.疏水蛋白独特的自组装性质使其在不同的领域均具有应用潜力,如材料表面修饰、乳化、蛋白纯化、药物传送和生物传感器制作等.本文主要介绍了真菌疏水蛋白的国内外研究进展,并针对本课题组发现的灰树花真菌疏水蛋白,介绍其自组装分子机制、在材料表面修饰以及药物缓/控释等方面的应用研究.     

病毒样颗粒及其在疫苗中的应用

病毒样颗粒(virus-like particle, VLP)是由一个或多个病毒衣壳蛋白(capsid protein, CP)自组装形成的多聚体纳米颗粒,其结构类似于天然病毒颗粒,但因缺乏病毒复制的基因组而不具有传染性。VLP免疫原性高,即使在没有佐剂的情况下也能诱导机体产生高效的免疫反应,因此出现了一系列基于VLP为抗原的候选疫苗,用于预防多种传染性疾病,被认为是国际上最安全、最有效的理想疫苗。现就VLP的类型、结构、免疫机制、表达纯化及其在疫苗中的应用等方面作一概述。     

自组装无载体纳米药物的研究进展

近年来，自组装无载体纳米药物由于具有高载药量、低毒副作用、合成方法简便等特点，在生物医药领域受到广泛关注，尤其在抗肿瘤和抗菌等方面具有广阔的应用前景和发展潜力。本文简述了无载体纳米药物自组装作用力，详细综述了目前自组装无载体纳米药物的制备方法，着重阐述了其在抗肿瘤、抗菌、抗炎和抗氧化等生物医学领域的应用及研究进展，最后讨论了无载体纳米药物面临的挑战和未来的发展方向，以期为合理设计更有效的自组装无载体纳米药物及其在临床应用提供理论依据。     

基于核酸自组装纳米结构的siRNA药物递送研究进展

RNA干扰(RNA interference,RNAi)作为转录后调节机制,可靶向mRNA进行剪切降解从而发挥基因沉默效应.siRNA (small interference RNA)因其高效性和特异性而被广泛应用于药物研究中.目前,研究者们已开发了多种阳离子载体用于siRNA递送.但由于siRNA双链结构具有相对较强的刚性结构,且阴离子电荷密度较低,无法与阳离子载体形成稳定、致密的复合物,使得siRNA的应用仍面临诸多挑战,如细胞摄取率低、靶向特异性差、递送过程不稳定、潜在的细胞毒性以及易诱发免疫反应等.近年来,核酸自组装纳米结构由于其结构灵活且负电荷密度较高而受到广泛关注,有望实现siRNA药物的高效递送和基因沉默.本文综述了近年来基于核酸自组装纳米结构的siRNA递送的研究进展及其应用.     

生物大分子自组装合成多维纳米生物结构与器件

生物体通过指导的自组装合成种类繁多、功能特异的天然纳米结构,它们在生命过程中扮演重要角色。按照自组装体的维度,可以分为线状(一维)、层状(二维)、笼状(三维)生物纳米结构。通过设计,这些生物大分子纳米结构可在细胞"工厂"中重组制备,且可通过合成生物学技术对其组装和功能化进行理性设计和调控,成为功能性纳米器件。这类纳米生物结构和器件已经在生物传感、催化、肿瘤热疗、药物递送、组织工程、生物电池等领域获得展示或应用。相关研究正在成为合成生物学和纳米生物学的一个交叉领域,受到关注。     

自组装在多肽药物中的应用

自组装是指分子、纳米级结构材料等基本单元自发地组装成一个稳定而又紧密结构的过程。多肽可在各种非共价驱动力下自组装形成纳米纤维、纳米层状结构、胶束等不同的形貌。因多肽具有氨基酸序列明确、易于合成、便于设计等优势,多肽自组装技术成为了近年来的一个研究热点。有研究表明,对某些多肽类药物进行自组装设计或者使用自组装肽材料作为药物递送的载体,可以解决药物自身存在的半衰期短、水溶性差、生理屏障穿透率低等问题。本文重点介绍了自组装多肽的形成机制、自组装形貌、影响因素、自组装设计方法及其在生物医学领域的主要应用,为多肽的高效利用提供参考。     

超分子多肽自组装在生物医学中的应用

近年来,自组装多肽纳米技术因其可形成规则有序的结构、具有多样的功能而备受关注.研究发现自组装多肽能在特定的条件下形成具有确定结构的聚集体,这种聚集体具备生物相容性好、稳定性高等优点,表现出不同于单体多肽分子的特性和优势,因此其在药物传递、组织工程、抗菌等领域具有良好的应用前景.文中介绍了 自组装多肽形成的分子机理、类型...     

促吞噬肽功能化的HBc VLPs纳米载体的制备

促吞噬肽(Tuftsin)是机体脾组织产生的生理活性肽,具有强大的免疫调节和免疫治疗潜力。乙型肝炎病毒核心蛋白病毒样颗粒(hepatitis B virus core protein virus-like particles, HBc VLPs)是由HBc自组装形成的空心纳米颗粒,其不仅能应用于药物的递送,还能应用于外源蛋白质的显示。因此,Tuftsin功能化HBc VLPs载体的研究在免疫治疗、分子递送等方面具有重要意义。本研究选用PET43.1-a质粒作为Tuftsin-HBc VLP的表达载体,以大肠杆菌BL21 (DE3)为工程菌进行诱导表达,通过盐析、分子筛层析和离子交换层析技术纯化生产Tuftsin-HBc VLP。利用Western印迹和ELISA分别对Tuftsin-HBc VLP上HBc和Tuftsin进行定性分析。结果显示,Tuftsin-HBc VLP可与抗HBc抗体和抗Tuftsin抗体发生特异性结合。透射电镜观察结果显示,Tuftsin-HBc VLP呈大小均一的球形结构,粒度分析仪测得Tuftsin-HBc VLP的直径约为30 nm。CCK8法显示,Tuftsin-HBc VLP在0～480μg/mL范围内,细胞增殖未见显著变化。上述结果表明,本研究成功制备了可以在原核系统中高效表达且安全有效的Tuftsin-HBc VLP生物纳米递送载体。     

金纳米棒的表面修饰及其应用于肿瘤诊疗的研究进展

金纳米棒具有独特的光学性质、表面易修饰性、较低的生物毒性和良好的生物相容性,因而在成像、光热治疗和药物载带等方面具有极高的潜在应用价值.本文综述了典型的金纳米棒表面修饰方法及其在生物成像、光热治疗和药物治疗中的应用,重点阐述了通过金纳米棒同时实现肿瘤诊断和治疗相结合的研究进展.     

编者按: 转运——小干扰RNA应用领域的瓶颈问题

自20世纪末RNA干扰现象(RNA interference)及其作用机制被发现以来,外源性的小干扰RNA(siRNA)已广泛地用于从基础研究到临床实践的多个领域。但,如何有效地、特异地将siRNA输送进入靶细胞,始终是使用者关注的重点,并已逐步成为siRNA应用于临床治疗的瓶颈问题之一。目前开展研究的siRNA转运方法主要包括3类：a. 通过与配基偶联实现siRNA的转运;b. 将siRNA包载于纳米颗粒等中经内吞进入细胞; c. 载体与细胞膜融合释放所载siRNA进入细胞。 本刊在这期中特意选择了3篇文章组成了一个小专题来介绍与探讨siRNA的输送问题。梁伟等应邀撰写了题为《siRNA脂质纳米输送载体的研究进展》的综述,介绍了siRNA输送载体的基本要求,特别是脂质纳米载体(lipid-based siRNA delivering systems)的设计和构筑原则,以及这类载体的研发现状和应用前景;张洪杰等结合自身的研发工作撰写了《细胞穿透肽及其结构改造在siRNA传递中的应用》一文,从发现、毒副作用、传递机制、结构修饰与传递功能改进等几个方面,系统评述了细胞穿透肽(cell penetrating peptides)在siRNA传递方面研究与应用的进展;张兴梅等在《适配子介导的siRNA转运》一文中重点介绍了基于适配子(aptamer)的siRNA转运系统的转运机制、近期研究进展和应用前景。3篇文章各有侧重,反映了当前siRNA转运研究中几个比较活跃的领域的研究进展,希望能对广大读者有所帮助。     

Production of FMDV virus-like particles by a SUMO fusion protein approach in Escherichia coli

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are formed by the self-assembly of envelope and/or capsid proteins from many viruses. Some VLPs have been proven successful as vaccines, and others have recently found applications as carriers for foreign antigens or as scaffolds in nanoparticle biotechnology. However, production of VLP was usually impeded due to low water-solubility of recombinant virus capsid proteins. Previous studies revealed that virus capsid and envelope proteins were often posttranslationally modified by SUMO in vivo, leading into a hypothesis that SUMO modification might be a common mechanism for virus proteins to retain water-solubility or prevent improper self-aggregation before virus assembly. We then propose a simple approach to produce VLPs of viruses, e.g., foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). An improved SUMO fusion protein system we developed recently was applied to the simultaneous expression of three capsid proteins of FMDV in E. coli. The three SUMO fusion proteins formed a stable heterotrimeric complex. Proteolytic removal of SUMO moieties from the ternary complexes resulted in VLPs with size and shape resembling the authentic FMDV. The method described here can also apply to produce capsid/envelope protein complexes or VLPs of other disease-causing viruses.     

Versatile RHDV virus-like particles: incorporation of antigens by genetic modification and chemical conjugation

Virus‐like particles have proved to be excellent molecular scaffolds, yet the individual characteristics and immune responses generated against each VLP requires the development of a wide range of capsids for use as vaccines, molecular delivery vessels, and nanoscale templates. Here we describe the development of Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV)‐like particles as a rapidly versatile molecular workbench, overcoming limitations imposed by established genetic antigen incorporation procedures with chimeric VLP. Production of the RHDV capsid protein in a baculovirus system led to the self‐assembly of VLP which were recovered at over 99% purity and manipulated both genetically and chemically. Fusion of small peptide sequences to RHDV VLP was well tolerated, forming chimeric capsids that enhanced the presentation of foreign peptide to hybridoma T helper cells 700‐fold. Rapid and simple conjugation techniques employing the hetero‐bifunctional chemical linker sulfo‐SMCC enabled both small peptides and whole proteins to be conjugated to the surface of RHDV VLP, overcoming limitations imposed on VLP formation and yield experienced with chimeric VLP. Administration of VLP/ovalbumin conjugate provoked high titre ovalbumin‐specific antibody in mice, demonstrating the immune stimulatory properties of the capsid were conferred to conjugated foreign antigen. VLP facilitated delivery of conjugated antigen to dendritic cells, eliciting proliferative responses in naïve TCR transgenic T helper cells that were at least 10‐fold greater than ovalbumin antigen delivered alone. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2007;98: 968–977. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Assembly of the capsid protein of red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus during purification,and role of calcium ions in chromatography

Currently virus-like particles (VLPs) are receiving much attention as platforms for next generation vaccines. However, chromatography-based methods for purifying VLPs remain challenging. Unlike traditional methods using density gradient for purifying VLPs, there have been few advances in explaining how assembled particles can be obtained by chromatography. Nervous necrosis virus (NNV) infects over 30 species of fish and leads to large economic losses in the farmed fish industry. Previously we developed a heparin chromatography-based method for purifying red-spotted grouper NNV (RGNNV) VLPs. However it is unclear how the assembled RGNNV VLPs are obtained by this method. It is known that assembly of NNV capsid proteins depends on calcium ions. In the present study, we found that the yield of purified RGNNV capsid protein in heparin chromatography was enhanced when calcium ions were present during binding. Also, it appears that the capsid protein of RGNNV undergoes partial disassembly and reassembly during sample preparation prior to heparin chromatography and the protein finally undergoes assembly during the chromatography. Therefore, our results indicated that heparin-binding affinity of RGNNV capsid protein is linked to its ability for VLP formation. The assembly of RGNNV capsid proteins recombinantly produced is a good model for explaining VLP formation during chromatography-based purification processes.     

Individual rotavirus-like particles containing 120 molecules of fluorescent protein are visible in living cells

Rotaviruses are large, complex icosahedral particles consisting of three concentric capsid layers. When the innermost capsid protein VP2 is expressed in the baculovirus-insect cell system it assembles as core-like particles. The amino terminus region of VP2 is dispensable for assembly of virus-like particles (VLP). Coexpression of VP2 and VP6 produces double layered VLP. We hypothesized that the amino end of VP2 could be extended without altering the auto assembly properties of VP2. Using the green fluorescent protein (GFP) or the DsRed protein as model inserts we have shown that the chimeric protein GFP (or DsRed)-VP2 auto assembles perfectly well and forms fluorescent VLP (GFP-VLP2/6 or DsRed-VLP2/6) when coexpressed with VP6. The presence of GFP inside the core does not prevent the assembly of the outer capsid layer proteins VP7 and VP4 to give VLP2/6/7/4. Cryo-electron microscopy of purified GFP-VLP2/6 showed that GFP molecules are located at the 5-fold vertices of the core. It is possible to visualize a single fluorescent VLP in living cells by confocal fluorescent microscopy. In vitro VLP2/6 did not enter into permissive cells or in dendritic cells. In contrast, fluorescent VLP2/6/7/4 entered the cells and then the fluorescence signal disappear rapidly. Presented data indicate that fluorescent VLP are interesting tools to follow in real time the entry process of rotavirus and that chimeric VLP could be envisaged as "nanoboxes" carrying macromolecules to living cells.     

Epitope insertion at the N-terminal molecular switch of the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus T = 3 capsid protein leads to larger T = 4 capsids

Viruses need only one or a few structural capsid proteins to build an infectious particle. This is possible through the extensive use of symmetry and the conformational polymorphism of the structural proteins. Using virus-like particles (VLP) from rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) as a model, we addressed the basis of calicivirus capsid assembly and their application in vaccine design. The RHDV capsid is based on a T=3 lattice containing 180 identical subunits (VP1). We determined the structure of RHDV VLP to 8.0-Å resolution by three-dimensional cryoelectron microscopy; in addition, we used San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV) and feline calicivirus (FCV) capsid subunit structures to establish the backbone structure of VP1 by homology modeling and flexible docking analysis. Based on the three-domain VP1 model, several insertion mutants were designed to validate the VP1 pseudoatomic model, and foreign epitopes were placed at the N- or C-terminal end, as well as in an exposed loop on the capsid surface. We selected a set of T and B cell epitopes of various lengths derived from viral and eukaryotic origins. Structural analysis of these chimeric capsids further validates the VP1 model to design new chimeras. Whereas most insertions are well tolerated, VP1 with an FCV capsid protein-neutralizing epitope at the N terminus assembled into mixtures of T=3 and larger T=4 capsids. The calicivirus capsid protein, and perhaps that of many other viruses, thus can encode polymorphism modulators that are not anticipated from the plane sequence, with important implications for understanding virus assembly and evolution.     

Challenges for the production of virus-like particles in insect cells: The case of rotavirus-like particles

Virus-like particles (VLP) are formed when viral structural proteins are produced in an heterologous expression system. Such proteins assemble into structures that are morphologically similar to native viruses but lack the viral genome. VLP are complex structures with a wide variety of applications, ranging from basic research and vaccines to potential new uses in nanotechnology. Production of VLP is a challenging task, as both the synthesis and assembly of one or more recombinant proteins are required. This is the case for VLP of rotavirus (RLP), which is an RNA virus with a capsid formed by 1860 monomers of four different proteins. In addition, the production of most VLP requires the simultaneous expression and assembly of several recombinant proteins, which – for the case of RLP – needs to occur in a single host cell. The insect cell baculovirus expression vector system (IC-BEVS) has been shown to be a powerful and convenient system for rapidly and easily producing VLP, due to several convenient features, including its versatility and the short time needed for construction of recombinant baculovirus. In this review, the specific case of rotavirus-like particle (RLP) production by the IC-BEVS is discussed, with emphasis on bioprocess engineering issues that exist and their solutions. Many culture strategies discussed here can be useful for the production of other VLP.     

Engineered mutations change the structure and stability of a virus-like particle

The single-coat protein (CP) of bacteriophage Qβ self-assembles into T = 3 icosahedral virus-like particles (VLPs), of interest for a wide range of applications. These VLPs are very stable, but identification of the specific molecular determinants of this stability is lacking. To investigate these determinants along with manipulations that confer more capabilities to our VLP material, we manipulated the CP primary structure to test the importance of various putative stabilizing interactions. Optimization of a procedure to incorporate fused CP subunits allowed for good control over the average number of covalent dimers in each VLP. We confirmed that the disulfide linkages are the most important stabilizing elements for the capsid and that acidic conditions significantly enhance the resistance of VLPs to thermal degradation. Interdimer interactions were found to be less important for VLP assembly than intradimer interactions. Finally, a single point mutation in the CP resulted in a population of smaller VLPs in three distinct structural forms.     

Hepatitis E virus capsid protein assembles in 4M urea in the presence of salts

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) capsid protein has been demonstrated to be able to assemble into particles in vitro. However, this process and the mechanism of protein–protein interactions during particle assembly remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the assembly mechanism of HEV structural protein subunits, the capsid protein p239 (aa368–606), using analytical ultracentrifugation. It was the first to observe that the p239 can form particles in 4M urea as a result of supplementation with salt, including ammonium sulfate [(NH₄)₂SO₄], sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), sodium chloride (NaCl), and ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl). Interestingly, it is the ionic strength that determines the efficiency of promoting particle assembly. The assembly rate was affected by temperature and salt concentration. When (NH₄)₂SO₄ was used, assembling intermediates of p239 with sedimentation coefficient values of approximately 5 S, which were mostly dodecamers, were identified for the first time. A highly conserved 28‐aa region (aa368–395) of p239 was found to be critical for particle assembly, and the hydrophobic residues Leu³⁷², Leu³⁷⁵, and Leu³⁹⁵of p239 was found to be critical for particle assembly, which was revealed by site‐directed mutagenesis. This study provides new insights into the assembly mechanism of native HEV, and contributes a valuable basis for further investigations of protein assembly by hydrophobic interactions under denaturing conditions.     

Nuclear localization of avian polyomavirus structural protein VP1 is a prerequisite for the formation of virus-like particles

Virions of polyomaviruses consist of the major structural protein VP1, the minor structural proteins VP2 and VP3, and the viral genome associated with histones. An additional structural protein, VP4, is present in avian polyomavirus (APV) particles. As it had been reported that expression of APV VP1 in insect cells did not result in the formation of virus-like particles (VLP), the prerequisites for particle formation were analyzed. To this end, recombinant influenza viruses were created to (co)express the structural proteins of APV in chicken embryo cells, permissive for APV replication. VP1 expressed individually or coexpressed with VP4 did not result in VLP formation; both proteins (co)localized in the cytoplasm. Transport of VP1, or the VP1-VP4 complex, into the nucleus was facilitated by the coexpression of VP3 and resulted in the formation of VLP. Accordingly, a mutant APV VP1 carrying the N-terminal nuclear localization signal of simian virus 40 VP1 was transported to the nucleus and assembled into VLP. These results support a model of APV capsid assembly in which complexes of the structural proteins VP1, VP3 (or VP2), and VP4, formed within the cytoplasm, are transported to the nucleus using the nuclear localization signal of VP3 (or VP2); there, capsid formation is induced by the nuclear environment.     

Exploiting the yeast L-A viral capsid for the in vivo assembly of chimeric VLPs as platform in vaccine development and foreign protein expression

A novel expression system based on engineered variants of the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) dsRNA virus L-A was developed allowing the in vivo assembly of chimeric virus-like particles (VLPs) as a unique platform for a wide range of applications. We show that polypeptides fused to the viral capsid protein Gag self-assemble into isometric VLP chimeras carrying their cargo inside the capsid, thereby not only effectively preventing proteolytic degradation in the host cell cytosol, but also allowing the expression of a per se cytotoxic protein. Carboxyterminal extension of Gag by T cell epitopes from human cytomegalovirus pp65 resulted in the formation of hybrid VLPs that strongly activated antigen-specific CD8(+) memory T cells ex vivo. Besides being a carrier for polypeptides inducing antigen-specific immune responses in vivo, VLP chimeras were also shown to be effective in the expression and purification of (i) a heterologous model protein (GFP), (ii) a per se toxic protein (K28 alpha-subunit), and (iii) a particle-associated and fully recyclable biotechnologically relevant enzyme (esterase A). Thus, yeast viral Gag represents a unique platform for the in vivo assembly of chimeric VLPs, equally attractive and useful in vaccine development and recombinant protein production.