School of the school of Leon Abgarovich Orbeli

In 2007, L. A. Orbeli would have been 125. He was distinguished by extremely wide scientific interrests; he created one of the most numerous and fruitful scientific schools. He authored prominent achievements in physiology of autonomic nervous system, evolutionary physiology, sensory physiology, renal physiology, physiology of underwater labor. Orbeli paid much attention to the scientific-organizational activity, he was academician-secretary of the Division of Biological Sciences of the USSR Academy of Sciences, President of the Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists, Editor-in-Chief of the USSR Physiological Journal, etc. Principles of the scientific scholl founded by Orbeli are service to science and society, propity to scientific ethics, humanity.     

Orbeli and Evolutionary Physiology

A brief history of evolutionary physiology and the role in its foundation of the outstanding physiologist of our country, Leon Abgarovich Orbeli, are reviewed. The main stages of development of evolutionary physiology are described; the difficulties occurring in the path of its establishment are noted. It is shown that the establishment of evolutionary physiology as an independent scientific discipline was far from occurring at once; its foundation required many years of pondering, an intensive organizational work, and the great personal courage of L.A. Orbeli. It is narrated how the main (pivotal) and other important tasks of evolutionary physiology were developed, what methodological principles were used, how Orbeli's school appeared.     

Evolution of evolutionary physiology

In 19th century and at the beginning 20th century, reports appeared in the field of comparative and ontogenetic physiology and the value of these methods for understanding of evolution of functions. The term "evolutionary physiology" was suggested by A. N. Severtsov in 1914. In the beginning of 30s, in the USSR, laboratories for researches in problems of evolutionary physiology were created, the results of these researches having been published. In 1956 in Leningrad, the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology was founded by L. A. Orbeli. He formulates the goals and methods of evolutionary physiology. In the following half a century, the evolutionary physiology was actively developed. The evolutionary physiology solves problems of evolution of function of functions evolution, often involving methods of adjacent sciences, including biochemistry, morphology, molecular biology.     

Charles Darwin,evolutionary physiology,and origin of life

In the first half of the 19th century investigations began in the field of comparative and ontogenetic physiology, and the publication of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin became a further stimulus for the development of problems of evolutionary physiology. The term evolutionary physiology was coined by A.N. Severtzov in 1914, in the early 1930s the USSR created laboratories for the development of problems of evolutionary physiology. In 1956 L.A. Orbeli organized the Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology (Academy of Sciences of the USSR) in Leningrad. This paper discusses the problems of physiological paleontology, principles of the evolution of functions, regularities in functional evolution, and physiologic approaches to the origin of cell and life.     

The contribution of Academician L. A. Orbeli to the theory of higher nervous activity]

In the paper are discussed the main directions of the investigation of the higher nervous activity, fruitfully developed by academician L. A. Orbeli and his school. These directions are the following: the evolutionary approach, the study of the influence of the sympathetic nervous and endocrine systems, of the role of the extracortical brain structures, especially the hypothalamus and the cerebellum, and the significance of pain and efferent systems for the higher nervous activity.     

Orbeli's experimental work on color discrimination in dogs

In the 1900's, L.A. Orbeli, on I.P. Pavlov's request, attempted to establish color discrimination in dogs. Previous experiments used the motor discrimination method and gave inconsistent results. In contrast, Orbeli used the salivary conditional reflex method, which he considered to be more precise than the method that relied on erratic movements of a dog. After experimentation that lasted about one and a half years, Orbeli failed to establish color discrimination. When subsequent experiments by Russians and Germans yielded positive results with the motor discrimination method, Orbeli switched to this method and also obtained positive results. These findings were confirmed by most subsequent experiments on color discrimination in dogs. The utility of Pavlovian conditioning in sensory experimentation was not universally justified and its importance was greater in the study of learning.     

Professor Natal’ya N. Traugott’s Contribution to Studies on the Development of Central Speech Mechanisms

The name of Natal’ya Nikolaevna Traugott is closely associated with the history of human higher nervous activity studies in Russia. Destiny gifted to N.N. Traugott the opportunity to communicate with many outstanding scientists; she regularly attended the “Pavlov Wednesdays”, took part in V.M. Bechterev’s clinical discussions, visited L.S. Vygotskii’s lectures on the problems of children higher psychic functions development. For many years N.N. Traugott had a professional relationship with A.R. Luriya and his colleagues, at the suggestion of L.A. Orbeli she had headed the laboratory of pathology of higher nervous function from the beginning of 1956. The paramount importance for the development of new directions in evolutionary physiology had N.N. Traugott’s works on the principles of cortical dysfunction in different psychopathological conditions and her recommendations aimed at a strategy for individual corrections of speech in children.     

The second signal system as conceived by Pavlov and his disciples

Pavlov clearly formulated his ideas on the second signal system (specifically, language) in the 1930s. This occurred in conjunction with his interest in interspecies differences and in the study of human neuroses. Pavlov proposed that conditional reflexes signal concrete reality while symbolic-language provides abstractions of reality. Phylogenetically, language emerged in the humans because this form of communication had survival value to the species. Pavlov's disciples L. A. Orbeli and N. I. Krasnogorski? had considered the ontogenetic development of language. The experimental investigation of A. G. Ivanov-Smolenski? extended Pavlov's empirical study of the function of language in psychopathology. Notwithstanding a sustained interest in language, Pavlov did not develop a theory of language acquisition based upon the conditioning principle. Pavlov's conceptualization of language may not have been original, nor did it contribute significantly to modern linguistics. It is now mainly of historical interest. It was, nevertheless, important to the conceptualization of neuroses within the context of the theory of higher nervous activity and it had far-reaching political implications for Soviet psychology in the immediate post-World War II period.     

The role of experimental entomology in working out fundamental problems of physiology and medicine (L.A. Orbeli and experimental entomology)

This paper is based on the author’s lecture presented at the conference Theoretical and Applied Entomology: Past, Present and Future, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Russian Entomological Society, which took place on April 2, 2009 in St. Petersburg. The lecture suggested a definition of the concept “experimental entomology” and listed the most popular research objects. A brief historical review of the origin and development of some trends in experimental entomology in the XX and XXI centuries in Russia was given. Special attention was paid to the contribution of Acad. L.A. Orbeli and his ideas concerning evolution of functions and functional evolution as well as to the importance of ideas of his collaborators and followers, G.V. Gershuni, L.G. Leibson and A.L. Polenov, in developing a number of present directions of experimental entomology. These classic and ultramodern directions include comparative genetics of behavior (M.E. Lobashev, A.K. Voskresenskaya, N.G. Lopatina, I.A. Nikitina, V.B. Savvateev, V.V. Ponomarenko, N.G. Kamyshev), genetics of higher nervous activity (N.G. Lopatina), neurogenetics (E.V. Savvateeva-Popova), biorhythmology (ecological concept of photoperiodism—A.S. Danilevsky, investigation of the physiological mechanisms of photoperiodic adaptations—V.P. Tyshchenko), immunology (S.I. Chernysh), neuroendocrinology and mechanisms of stress (I.Yu. Raushenbach, S.I. Chernysh, G.V. Ben’kovskaya), psychoneuroendocrinology (the hypothesis of “dynamic neuroendocrine integration”—A.N. Knyazev), etc. A special place in the lecture was assigned to sensory physiology of insects and, first of all, to the series of monographs by F.G. Gribakin, Yu.A. Elizarov, G.A. Mazokhin-Porshnyakov, R.D. Zhantiev, A.V. Popov, V.L. Svidersky, A.V. Skirkyavichus, L.I. Frantsevich awarded the USSR State Prize in 1987. The origin of a novel field, cognitive ethology (Zh.I. Reznikova) that emerged at the intersection of ethology, ecology, theory of evolution, and comparative psychology is noted in the final part of the lecture.     

The priority contribution of academician A.L. Kursanov's scientific school to the study of oxygen metabolism and anaerobiosis in plants

The biographical data on scientific activity of Academician A.L. Kursanov are presented. The contribution of A.L. Kursanov and his school to study of oxygen metabolism and plants anaerobiosis is reviewed. Special attention is given to the works on plant respiration, biosynthesis of endogenous water within plants and animals, mechanism of vitamin A biosynthesis and the metabolism of intracellular water studied with 18O methods. The important works of A.L. Kursanov's school that played an essential role in establishing the new brunch of science at the interface of physiology, biochemistry and ecology of plants, focused on the plant anaerobiosis theory are considered in details.     

Study of pathways transmitting sympathetic-activating influences from hypothalamus to spinal cord

The properties of hypothalamic pathways activating sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the lateral horns of the spinal cord were studied in cats. This activation was shown to take place through reticulospinal sympathetic-activating neurons in the medulla. The possible zone of location of hypothalamic sympathetic-activating output neurons was shown by the scanning stimulation method to be in the posterolateral hypothalamus. Reticulospinal sympathetic-activating neurons in the medulla are probably excited monosynaptically by hypothalamo-sympathetic activating fibers projected on them.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 307–314, May–June, 1982.     

Early contributions of Russian stress and exercise physiologists.

In Russia, the free development of scientific ideas was suppressed in 1950 as a result of the actions of the Joint Session of the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR. Hans Selye's theory on the general adaptation syndrome was considered unscientific. From 1956 to 1958, Pjotr Anokhin and Pjotr Gorizontov presented definitive arguments for having the theory accepted by scientists while the significance of hormones in adaptation became a topic of endocrine studies (Boris Aleshin, Igor Eskin, Vassily Komissarenko, Samuel Leites, and Michael Kolpakov). Later, Felius Meerson made essential contributions to the adaptive significance of protein synthesis and stress-limiting systems. The area of exercise physiology dealing with acute and chronic adaptation to strong physiological stressors was founded by Leon Orbeli and developed by Aleksei Krestovnikov. Significant contributors to this area were Vladimir Farfel, Nikolai Yakovlev, and Nikolai Zimkin. Although the majority of their publications have remained unknown outside of Russia, it is interesting that many of their results have been "rediscovered" by others. Yakovlev also deserves recognition because he was among the founders of contemporary exercise biochemistry and because his research has provided the foundation for current investigations. Several generations of young scientists have been inspired by the above-mentioned Russian scientists. Today, however, the research activities of scientists are no longer limited by political pressures but by financial resources instead.     

Sources of thalamo-cortical afferents of the forelimb representation area in the first somatosensory zone of the cat cerebral cortex

Retrogradely labeled thalamic neurons—the sources of afferents in the focus of peak activity induced by radial nerve stimulation—were investigated in adult cats by means of microiontophoretic horseradish peroxidase injection into the first somatosensory zone of the cerebral cortex. Labeled cells were found mainly in the ventroposterolateral and a smaller proportion in the posteroventral medial thalamic nuclei. Labeled neurons were distributed in groups differing in their morphological parameters within these nuclei.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 154–160, March–April, 1988.     

Factors responsible for multiple discharge of motoneurons in the facial nucleus in cats

The multiple discharge evoked by stimulation of the caudal trigeminal nucleus in motoneurons of the cat facial nucleus was investigated by an intracellular recording method in acute experiments on cats. The multiple discharge was shown to arise on the basis of gradual depolarization of the motoneuron membranes produced as a result of effective summation of high-frequency excitatory influences arriving from the caudal trigeminal nucleus. Factors facilitating the development of this process are the dendritic localization of synaptic endings of projection neurons of the caudal trigeminal nucleus, the dendritic origin of delayed depolarization processes, and the high input resistance of the motoneuron membrane in the facial nerve nucleus.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 13, No. 5, pp. 520–530, September–October, 1981.     

Properties of neurons sensitive to moving black stimuli in lateral suprasylvian area of the cat cortex

Neurons sensitive to visual stimulation in the lateral suprasylvian area of the cortex were investigated in cats with pretrigeminal brain section. About 25% of the neuron population responding to visual stimulation were shown to be highly sensitive to moving black objects. These neurons were called black-sensitive. Neurons of this group had a low level of spontaneous activity and were mainly directionally sensitive. Some of them exhibited summation of responses during successive enlargement of the stimulus. An important distinguishing feature of these neurons was a change in the temporal structure of their response after contrast reversal of the stimulus.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 16–21, January–February, 1983.     

Synaptic processes in facial motoneurons evoked by stimulation of the caudal trigeminal nucleus

Field potentials and postsynaptic potentials of facial motoneurons evoked by stimulation of the caudal trigeminal nucleus were investigated in acute experiments on cats by extra- and intra-cellular recording. Pre- and postsynaptic components of field potentials were found. Four types of motoneuron response were distinguished: EPSP with generation of single action potentials; a gradual shift of depolarization inducing grouped action potentials; a rhythmic discharge of action potentials arising at a low level of depolarization; and EPSPs or EPSP-IPSP sequences. The monosynaptic and (chiefly) polysynaptic nature of these responses was demonstrated. The possible mechanism of afferent control over facial motoneurons are discussed.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 272–282, May–June, 1980.     

Components of synaptic potentials of cat rubrospinal neurons evoked by corticofugal impulsation

EPSPs of rubrospinal neurons evoked by stimulation of the sensorimotor area of the cortex were studied in cats anesthetized with pentobarbital by means of intracellular recording. The involvement of corticospinal input in generating the EPSP was assessed by selective activation of corticospinal fibers at medullary pyramid level and by studying how they interact under the effects of cortical stimulation. It was shown that predominantly corticospinal and corticorubral neurons with slow-conducting axons are involved equally in the genesis of the first two components of complex EPSP. The cellular composition and mechanisms of corticofugal influences on red nucleus neurons are discussed.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 692–700, September–October, 1985.     

Synaptic mechanisms of the action of subcortical formations on motoneurons in cat facial nerve

Characteristics of the synaptic processes produced by stimulating the head of the caudate nucleus, theglocus pallidus, and the central amygaloid nucleus were investigated in motoneurons of the facial nerve during acute experiments on cats using intracellular recording techniques. It was found that stimulating the first two of these structures causes polysynaptic activation, while both mono- and polysynaptic excitation of facial nerve motoneurons are produced by stimulation of the central amygdaloid nucleus.L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 800–809, November–December, 1985.     

Electrophysiological study of locus ceruleus projections to central cerebellar nuclei

Evoked response (field potentials) were recorded in all cerebellar nuclei when stimulating the locus ceruleus (LC). Response occurring in the dentate and fastigial nuclei were of considerably greater amplitude and were repeated at a higher rate than in the interstitial nucleus. Blockade of beta-adrenoreceptors led to clear-cut depression of response in the dentate and fastigial nuclei and increased response in the interstitial nucleus. Neuronal response to LC stimulation in the nuclei mainly took the form of inhibition of spontaneous discharges. A less pronounced response was observed in the interstitial nucleus. The findings obtained would indicate the presence of noradrenergic afferents reaching the cerebellar nuclei, where they are unevenly distributed.Kh. Anovyan Pedagogical Institute, Armenia SSR, Erevan. L. A. Orbeli Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Erevan. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 1, pp. 39–44, January–February, 1989.     

Development of evolutionary biomedicine as a novel direction of biological science

This review analyzes the data obtained for the last decade on invertebrate animals (insects, round worms, molluscs) as models of various human diseases. As illustration, there are considered advances in studying of the invertebrate system of insulin-like peptides and signaling mechanisms of their action—evolutionary conservative homologues of the mammalian insulin/IGF-1 system. Results are presented of studies on the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila Drosophila melanogaster, and mollusks, which “model” individual aspects of some human diseases—diabetes, neurodegenerative dysfunction, carcinogenesis, as well as aging. A conclusion is made about the development of a new, synthetic direction combining evolutionary science and molecular biology and medicine, which we call evolutionary biomedicine. The roots of the appearance of this synthetic direction are to be searched for in L.A. Orbeli’s evolutionary ideas, methods, and scientific predictions.