What it Takes to Get Passed On: Message Content,Style, and Structure as Predictors of Retransmission in the Boston Marathon Bombing Response

Message retransmission is a central aspect of information diffusion. In a disaster context, the passing on of official warning messages by members of the public also serves as a behavioral indicator of message salience, suggesting that particular messages are (or are not) perceived by the public to be both noteworthy and valuable enough to share with others. This study provides the first examination of terse message retransmission of official warning messages in response to a domestic terrorist attack, the Boston Marathon Bombing in 2013. Using messages posted from public officials’ Twitter accounts that were active during the period of the Boston Marathon bombing and manhunt, we examine the features of messages that are associated with their retransmission. We focus on message content, style, and structure, as well as the networked relationships of message senders to answer the question: what characteristics of a terse message sent under conditions of imminent threat predict its retransmission among members of the public? We employ a negative binomial model to examine how message characteristics affect message retransmission. We find that, rather than any single effect dominating the process, retransmission of official Tweets during the Boston bombing response was jointly influenced by various message content, style, and sender characteristics. These findings suggest the need for more work that investigates impact of multiple factors on the allocation of attention and on message retransmission during hazard events.     

Promoting the Avoidance of High-Calorie Snacks: Priming Autonomy Moderates Message Framing Effects

The beneficial effects of gain-framed vs. loss-framed messages promoting health protective behaviors have been found to be inconsistent, and consideration of potential moderating variables is essential if framed health promotion messages are to be effective. This research aimed to determine the influence of highlighting autonomy (choice and freedom) and heteronomy (coercion) on the avoidance of high-calorie snacks following reading gain-framed or loss-framed health messages. In Study 1 (N = 152) participants completed an autonomy, neutral, or heteronomy priming task, and read a gain-framed or loss-framed health message. In Study 2 (N = 242) participants read a gain-framed or loss-framed health message with embedded autonomy or heteronomy primes. In both studies, snacking intentions and behavior were recorded after seven days. In both studies, when autonomy was highlighted, the gain-framed message (compared to the loss-framed message) resulted in stronger intentions to avoid high-calorie snacks, and lower self-reported snack consumption after seven days. Study 2 demonstrated this effect occurred only for participants to whom the information was most relevant (BMI>25). The results suggest that messages promoting healthy dietary behavior may be more persuasive if the autonomy-supportive vs. coercive nature of the health information is matched to the message frame. Further research is needed to examine potential mediating processes.     

Dishonesty invites costly third-party punishment

Third-party punishment for norm violators is an evolvable enforcer of social norms. The present study, involving two experiments, examined whether violations of honesty norms would induce costly third-party punishments. In both experiments, participants in the third-party role observed a protocol of the trust game, in which the trustee solicited the trustor to transfer his/her endowment by stating that the trustee would return x units from the total resource. Dishonesty was defined such that the trustee in fact returned fewer than x units. Participants were asked about their willingness to incur some cost to reduce the trustee's payoff. In Experiment 1, x was exactly half of the total resource. Participants were willing to incur more cost to punish the dishonest trustee than the trustee who allocated the resource unequally but had not sent the dishonest message. In Experiment 2, x was more than half of the total resource and the dishonest trustee allocated the total resource equally. Therefore, the dishonest trustee was not unfair in Experiment 2. Approximately half of the participants (16 of 30) punished the dishonest but fair trustee, while few participants (1 of 30) punished the fair trustee who had not sent the dishonest message. These experiments together demonstrated that participants were willing to incur some cost to punish honesty-norm violators, even when the participants themselves were not harmed by the norm violation.     

Risks and benefits of sun exposure: implications for public health practice based on the Australian experience

Over recent years, evidence has been accumulating that vitamin D has a positive impact on our overall health. This may have an impact on the future of our public health advice related to skin cancer prevention. This paper explores, from a public health perspective based on Australian experience, how skin cancer prevention messages should be managed in light of new information about vitamin D and, in particular, the times when sun protection advice should be provided and how the vitamin D message can be complementary to the sun protection message.     

Exploiting application buffer reuse to improve MPI small message transfer protocols over RDMA-enabled networks

To avoid the memory registration cost for small messages in MPI implementations over RDMA-enabled networks, message transfer protocols involve a copy to intermediate buffers at both sender and receiver. In this paper, we propose to eliminate the send-side copy when an application buffer is reused frequently. We show that it is more efficient to register the application buffer and use it for data transfer. The idea is examined for small message transfer protocols in MVAPICH2, including RDMA Write and Send/Receive based communications, one-sided communications and collectives. The proposed protocol adaptively falls back to the current protocol when the application does not frequently use its buffers. The performance results over InfiniBand indicate up to 14% improvement for single message latency, close to 20% improvement for one-sided operations and up to 25% improvement for collectives. In addition, the communication time in MPI applications with high buffer reuse is improved using this technique.     

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

Communication is a process in which senders provide information via signals and receivers respond accordingly. This process relies on two coevolving conventions: a “sender code” that determines what kind of signal is to be sent given the sender's state; and a “receiver code” that determines the appropriate responses to different signal types. By means of a simple but generic model, we show that polymorphic sender and receiver strategies emerge naturally during the evolution of communication, and that the number of alternative strategies observed at equilibrium depends on the potential for error in signal production. Our model suggests that alternative communication strategies will evolve whenever senders possess imperfect information about their own quality or state, signals are costly, and genetic mechanisms allow for a correlation between sender and receiver behavior. These findings provide an explanation for recent reports of individual differences in communication strategies, and suggest that the amount of individual variation that can be expected in communication systems depends on the type of information being conveyed. Our model also suggests a link between communication and the evolution of animal personalities, which is that individual differences in the production and interpretation of signals can result in consistent differences in behavior.     

Prevalence of Mobile Phones and Factors Influencing Usage by Caregivers of Young Children in Daily Life and for Health Care in Rural China: A Mixed Methods Study

Introduction

To capitalise on mHealth, we need to understand the use of mobile phones both in daily life and for health care.

Objective

To assess the prevalence and factors that influence usage of mobile phones by caregivers of young children.

Materials and Methods

A mixed methods approach was used, whereby a survey (N=1854) and semi-structured interviews (N=17) were conducted concurrently. The quantitative and qualitative data obtained were compared and integrated. Participants were caregivers of young children in Zhao County, Hebei Province, China.

Results

Four main themes were found: (i) trends in mobile phone ownership; (ii) usage of mobile phone functions; (iii) factors influencing replying to text messages; and (iv) uses of mobile phones for health care. The majority of 1,854 survey participants (1,620; 87.4%) used mobile phones, but usage was much higher among mothers (1,433; 92.6%) and fathers (41; 100.0%) compared to grandparents (142; 54.6%). Parents were able to send text messages, grandparents often not. Factors influencing the decision to reply to text messages in daily life were checking the mobile phone, trusting the sender, emotion or feeling when receiving a text message, the importance of replying and ease of use of text messages. Of 1,620 survey participants who used a mobile phone, about one in four (432; 26.7%) had used it for health care in the past three months and most (1,110; 93.5%) of 1,187 who had not wished to use their phone to receive health information.

Conclusion

We found that usage of mobile phones is high, several factors influencing usage and an interest of caregivers to use phones for health care in Zhao County, rural China, which can be used to inform studies in settings with similar characteristics. Future work needs to assess factors influencing mobile phone usage in-depth to optimize experiences of users for specific mHealth-based interventions.     

Improving Health Worker Adherence to Malaria Treatment Guidelines in Papua New Guinea: Feasibility and Acceptability of a Text Message Reminder Service

The aim of this study is to assess whether a text message reminder service designed to support health worker adherence to a revised malaria treatment protocol is feasible and acceptable in Papua New Guinea (PNG). The study took place in six purposively selected health facilities located in the Eastern Highlands Province (EHP) of PNG. Ten text messages designed to remind participants of key elements of the new NMTP were transmitted to 42 health workers twice over a two week period (two text messages per day, Monday to Friday) via the country’s largest mobile network provider. The feasibility and acceptability of the text message reminder service was assessed by transmission reports, participant diaries and group discussions. Findings indicate that the vast majority of text messages were successfully transmitted, participants’ had regular mobile phone access and that most text messages were read most of the time and were considered both acceptable and clinically useful. Nevertheless, the study found that PNG health workers may tire of the service if the same messages are repeated too many times and that health workers may be reluctant to utilize more comprehensive, yet complementary, resources. In conclusion, a text message reminder service to support health worker adherence to the new malaria treatment protocol is feasible and acceptable in PNG. A rigorous pragmatic, effectiveness trial would be justified on the basis of these findings.     

Dynamics of mimicry evolution

We simulated mimicry evolution by allowing three populations to cocvolvc: two populations of senders and one of receivers. Artificial neural networks were used to model receivers, and it was assumed that recognition was inherited. The senders' signals consisted of nine dimensions. Changes to receivers and senders were caused by random mutations during the course of the simulation. Whereas it paid both types of senders to elicit the same response from the receiver, it benefited the receiver to respond in this way only towards one of the sender types. The receiver was thus in conflict with one of the senders, e.g. as in Batesian mimicry. Monotonically increasing response gradients caused the appearance of the model and the mimic to move in the same direction. Mimicry evolved because the mimic approached the model faster than the model moved away. Even after mimicry was established the model and the mimic were constantly changing in appearance. Our results conform with what is known in comparative psychology and ethology about how animals respond to stimuli. Several of our results arc a direct consequence of recognition and have not, to our knowledge, been reported before, showing the importance of considering the recognition mechanism in detail when studying mimicry.     

Can Text Messages Reach the Parts Other Process Measures Cannot Reach: An Evaluation of a Behavior Change Intervention Delivered by Mobile Phone?

Background

Process evaluation is essential in developing, piloting and evaluating complex interventions. This often involves observation of intervention delivery and interviews with study participants. Mobile telephone interventions involve no face to face contact, making conventional process evaluation difficult. This study assesses the utility of novel techniques for process evaluation involving no face to face contact.

Methods

Text messages were delivered to 34 disadvantaged men as part of a feasibility study of a brief alcohol intervention. Process evaluation focused on delivery of the text messages and responses received from study participants. The computerized delivery system captured data on receipt of the messages. The text messages, delivered over 28 days, included nine which asked questions. Responses to these questions served as one technique for process evaluation by ascertaining the nature of engagement with the study and with steps on the causal chain to behavior change.

Results

A total of 646 SMS text messages were sent to participants. Of these, 613 messages (95%) were recorded as delivered to participants’ telephones. 88% of participants responded to messages that asked questions. There was little attenuation in responses to the questions across the intervention period. Content analysis of the responses revealed that participants engaged with text messages, thought deeply about their content and provided carefully considered personal responses to the questions.

Conclusions

Socially disadvantaged men, a hard to reach population, engaged in a meaningful way over a sustained period with an interactive intervention delivered by text message. The novel process measures used in the study are unobtrusive, low cost and collect real-time data on all participants. They assessed the fidelity of delivery of the intervention and monitored retention in the study. They measured levels of engagement and identified participants’ reactions to components of the intervention. These methods provide a valuable addition to conventional process evaluation techniques.     

The evolution of signal form: effects of learned versus inherited recognition

Organisms can learn by individual experience to recognize relevant stimuli in the environment or they can genetically inherit this ability from their parents. Here, we ask how these two modes of acquisition affect signal evolution, focusing in particular on the exaggeration and cost of signals. We argue first, that faster learning by individual receivers cannot be a driving force for the evolution of exaggerated and costly signals unless signal senders are related or the same receiver and sender meet repeatedly. We argue instead that biases in receivers' recognition mechanisms can promote the evolution of costly exaggeration in signals. We provide support for this hypothesis by simulating coevolution between senders and receivers, using artificial neural networks as a model of receivers' recognition mechanisms. We analyse the joint effects of receiver biases, signal cost and mode of acquisition, investigating the circumstances under which learned recognition gives rise to more exaggerated signals than inherited recognition. We conclude the paper by discussing the relevance of our results to a number of biological scenarios.     

Honest advocacy for nature: presenting a persuasive narrative for conservation

Conservation scientists are increasingly recognising the value of communicating policy-relevant knowledge to policy-makers. Whilst considerable progress has been made in offering practical advice for scientists seeking to engage more closely with decision-makers, researchers have provided few tangible examples to learn from. This paper uses an English case study, but draws out important high-level messages relevant to conservation scientists worldwide. The case study looks at how the Lawton Review presented knowledge persuasively about the suitability of England’s ecological network to deal with future pressures. Through skilful framing of rigorous scientific knowledge it was able to make a significant impact on government policy. Impact was achieved through: (1) selecting politically salient frames through which to communicate; (2) using clear, accessible language, and; (3) conducting rigorous science using an authoritative team of experts. Although its publication coincided with a favourable policy window, the Lawton Review seized on this opportunity to communicate a rigorously argued, persuasive and practical conservation message; in other words, it performed ‘honest advocacy’. Thus, whilst it remains important to conduct scientific research with technical rigour, conservation scientists could also benefit from identifying salient frames for conservation and communicating clearly.     

Listserv use enhances quality and safety in multisite quality improvement efforts

A listserv is an e-mail group to which people subscribe based upon common interests. We used a retrospective study to examine the relationship between listserv use and team success for health care quality improvement efforts. We hypothesized high listserv use would be associated with team success. Eighty-seven Department of Veterans Affairs teams participated in facilitated quality improvement efforts to address three areas: improving safety in high-hazard areas, improving the disability evaluation process, and reducing falls and related injuries. We coded messages sent to the listserv according to sender (faculty or participant), team, and content. We correlated the volume of messages sent per team with team success and with team and facility characteristics. Teams with high listserv contributions were more likely to complete their first test of change, report facility use of nonpunitive methods of investigating medical incidents, and report their information systems were useful. We found a negative correlation between listserv contribution and the number of face-to-face meetings and a physician as an active team member, but we found no relationship between team success and listserv contribution. Team listserv contribution was not associated with team success in multisite quality improvement efforts. Successful teams may be accessing information on the listserv but not sending a message to indicate use.     

Diffusion of Messages from an Electronic Cigarette Brand to Potential Users through Twitter

Objective

This study explores the presence and actions of an electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) brand, Blu, on Twitter to observe how marketing messages are sent and diffused through the retweet (i.e., message forwarding) functionality. Retweet networks enable messages to reach additional Twitter users beyond the sender’s local network. We follow messages from their origin through multiple retweets to identify which messages have more reach, and the different users who are exposed.

Methods

We collected three months of publicly available data from Twitter. A combination of techniques in social network analysis and content analysis were applied to determine the various networks of users who are exposed to e-cigarette messages and how the retweet network can affect which messages spread.

Results

The Blu retweet network expanded during the study period. Analysis of user profiles combined with network cluster analysis showed that messages of certain topics were only circulated within a community of e-cigarette supporters, while other topics spread further, reaching more general Twitter users who may not support or use e-cigarettes.

Conclusions

Retweet networks can serve as proxy filters for marketing messages, as Twitter users decide which messages they will continue to diffuse among their followers. As certain e-cigarette messages extend beyond their point of origin, the audience being exposed expands beyond the e-cigarette community. Potential implications for health education campaigns include utilizing Twitter and targeting important gatekeepers or hubs that would maximize message diffusion.     

Preempting Performance Challenges: The Effects of Inoculation Messaging on Attacks to Task Self-Efficacy

Although inoculation messages have been shown to be effective for inducing resistance to counter-attitudinal attacks, researchers have devoted relatively little attention toward studying the way in which inoculation theory principles might support challenges to psychological phenomena other than attitudes (e.g., self-efficacy). Prior to completing a physical (i.e., balance) task, undergraduates (N = 127, M_age = 19.20, SD = 2.16) were randomly assigned to receive either a control or inoculation message, and reported their confidence in their ability regarding the upcoming task. During the task, a confederate provided standardized negative feedback to all participants regarding their performance, and following the completion of the task, participants again reported their self-efficacy along with measures assessing in-task processes. Findings supported the viability of efficacy inoculation; controlling for pre-task self-efficacy, task performance, and relevant psycho-social variables (e.g., resilience, self-confidence robustness), participants in the inoculation condition reported greater confidence in their ability (i.e., task self-efficacy) than those in the control condition at post-task. Relative to those in the inoculation condition, participants in the control condition also experienced greater concentration disruption and self-presentation concerns during the task.     

Habitat complexity and the structure of vocalizations: a test of the acoustic adaptation hypothesis in three rail species (Rallidae)

The acoustic adaptation hypothesis is based on the assumption that senders are directionally selected to maximize transmission and minimize degradation; however, the two aims are not necessarily convergent. In complex habitats, where more effects that might potentially cause attenuation and degradation co‐occur and longer transmission must incur a higher cost, signals should attenuate faster and have shorter transmission ranges. At the same time, such signals should be more resistant to degradation in order to preserve their communicatory function. Based on a sound transmission experiment, we tested the evidence for these predictions using territorial calls of three sympatric species of rails, inhabiting habitats with increasing complexity: Corncrake Crex crex, Spotted Crake Porzana porzana and Water Rail Rallus aquaticus. In the experiment, the calls were broadcasted with similar amplitudes through a heterogeneous habitat inhabited by all three species and rerecorded at different distances up to 320 m. Despite standardized amplitudes and habitats, calls of the species living in simpler habitats had longer transmission ranges but were more susceptible to degradation than calls of the species living in more complex habitats. Our results suggest that narrow frequency bandwidth is an adaptation of species inhabiting complex habitats that helps their calls to degrade less at the cost of stronger attenuation and shorter transmission range. By contrast, wide frequency bandwidth extends the range but increases degradation and thus it is used only by species inhabiting structurally simpler habitats. This study shows that, in more complex habitats, the clarity of the message is preserved at the cost of range.     

Verbal messages strengthen bench press efficacy

This study examined the effects of verbal messages on bench press efficacy: the confidence to lift progressively heavier weights for 1 repetition. Thirty-two women who had not bench pressed within the previous 18 months were assigned to 1 of 2 groups and exposed to 2 sources of efficacy information. First, subjects in both groups performed 10 repetitions on a fixed movement, vertical bench press machine and completed the bench press efficacy scale. Next, each group received 1 of 2 possible verbal messages. Both messages included the speaker's strength training qualifications. In addition, one message conveyed specific performance feedback while the other contained more general information. Then efficacy was measured again. Results indicated both messages strengthened efficacy. Strength professionals who work one-on-one with novice women should: (a) make sure lifters are aware of their professional qualifications, (b) provide specific feedback, and (c) profess their beliefs in the lifters' abilities to perform the exercises.     

“Laughter” and “Smile” in Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

In an observational study on semi-free Barbary macaques it was investigated whether the phylogenetic roots of human laughter and smile can be traced back to the genus Macaca. On the basis of morphological similarity a ‘relaxed open-mouth display’ as the phylogenetic precursor of the laughter, and a ‘silent bared-teeth display’ as the possible ancestor of the smile can be distinguished in the repertory of the Barbary macaque. Behavioural sequences from focal animal protocols were analyzed in order to establish message and meaning of both displays. Relaxed open-mouth display is regularly observed in the play interactions of juveniles. It is associated with partner-directed behaviour, it is frequently answered by a relaxed open-mouth display of the receiver, and accompanied by a special vocalization. Although up to 50% of the juvenile's play partners were higher ranking than themselves voluntary participation was the rule. Most characteristically, the behaviour patterns shown by both play partners are highly symmetrical and synchronized. Silent bared-teeth display is typically accompanied by evasive or submissive body movements, and occurs primarily in dyadic interactions, mainly by the lower ranking individual. It is not an unidirectional sign of a linear dominance hierarchy, though. Silent bared-teeth display is a frequent answer to aggressive behaviour shown by the receiver. After its performance, an increase of body contact between sender and receiver was observed. Behavioural sequences of senders and receivers are complementary, but lose their asymmetry after occurrence of the display. It is concluded that these results further support Van Hooff 's (1972) view that human laughter and smile have different phylogenetic roots: while silent bared-teeth display is a signal of submission and appeasement, relaxed open-mouth display is rightly called the ‘play face’, and is an expression of fun.     

Audience Design through Social Interaction during Group Discussion

This paper contrasts two accounts of audience design during multiparty communication: audience design as a strategic individual-level message adjustment or as a non-strategic interaction-level message adjustment. Using a non-interactive communication task, Experiment 1 showed that people distinguish between messages designed for oneself and messages designed for another person; consistent with strategic message design, messages designed for another person/s were longer (number of words) than those designed for oneself. However, audience size did not affect message length (messages designed for different sized audiences were similar in length). Using an interactive communication task Experiment 2 showed that as group size increased so too did communicative effort (number of words exchanged between interlocutors). Consistent with a non-strategic account, as group members were added more social interaction was necessary to coordinate the group''s collective situation model. Experiment 3 validates and extends the production measures used in Experiment 1 and 2 using a comprehension task. Taken together, our results indicate that audience design arises as a non-strategic outcome of social interaction during group discussion.     

Using persuasive messages to encourage hunters to support regulation of lead shot

Lead shot from hunting adds the toxic metal to environments worldwide. The United States banned lead shot for hunting waterfowl in 1991 and 26 states have lead shot restrictions beyond those mandated for waterfowl hunting. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) was interested in studying hunter attitudes about expanded restrictions on the use of lead shot for hunting small game to understand what communication strategies might increase public support for potential restrictions on lead shot. We mailed messages about lead shot, including 1,200 control messages and 400 of each of 9 treatment messages, and surveys to 4,800 resident small game hunters. We compared attitudes and intentions related to a possible ban among control and treatment groups. Compared to the control message, all treatment messages elicited more positive attitudes and intentions to support a ban. A basic factual message, messages with references to Ducks Unlimited, and a first-person narrative message generated the strongest support for a ban. Results also demonstrated a substantial relationship between the use of lead shot and response to persuasive messages supporting a ban. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.