Understanding sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii) habitats through diet analysis in Rushebeya‐Kanyabaha wetland,Uganda

Between January and December 2008, we assessed the diet and habitat selection of sitatunga, a highly endangered tropical wetland antelope threatened by habitat loss in Rushebeya‐Kanyabaha wetland. Microhistological faecal analysis and vegetative sampling methods were used to assess plant forms, species and seasonal changes in the sitatunga diet. Habitat use was indirectly determined by assessing feeding patterns, distribution of dung and trails within the wetland. Sitatunga fed mainly on herbs, sedges, grasses and shrubs. A total of 34 plant species were recorded as eaten by sitatunga. The most eaten plant species was Cyperus papyrus L. (22%). Malenthera scandens Schum. & Thonn., Polygonum senegalense Meisu (12%) and Polygonum pulchrum Blume (5%) were the most eaten herbs. Zea mays L. was the most eaten agricultural crop (58% of domestic crops), mainly during the wet season. Sitatunga feeding was mainly concentrated on the wetland edge habitat (46%) where most of its food (53%) was located. The other preferred habitat was the tall closed papyrus. We conclude that the long‐term survival of sitatunga requires a management plan focussing on the conservation of the most preferred plant species and habitats.     

Crop protection and conflict mitigation: reducing the costs of living alongside non-human primates

Conflict between farmers and primates increasingly impacts conservation efforts in Africa and Asia. Field crops provide a reliable and readily-accessible source of food for primates coping with habitat loss. However, crop-raiding undermines food security and tolerance of wildlife within neighbouring human communities. Many primates consume crops regularly yet there are few accounts of systematic evaluation of techniques to deter them. Working in partnership with farmers, this study was conducted over two growing seasons within four villages adjacent to the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Using systematic observational sampling, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups, we (i) monitored primate crop-raiding behaviour prior to and after installing locally-appropriate deterrents, developed with local farmers, and (ii) explored farmers’ initial responses to the methods trialled. Deterrent efficacy was assessed by comparing the frequency and characteristics of raiding events across seasons. Primates were the predominant diurnal crop-raiders; six species were observed raiding. Deterrents implemented included barriers, alarms, repellents, and systematic guarding. Incidence of raiding and crop loss decreased in almost all cases, often by shifting raiding to unprotected fields or adjacent farms. Farmers identified benefits and shortcomings for each deterrent, and considered most to be effective and valuable. Insights from the research directly inform intervention strategies to address crop-raiding issues and extend options to mitigate human–wildlife conflict.     

Mitigating crop raiding by forest elephants and baboons at Kibale National Park

In Africa, most protected forests are in densely human-dominated landscapes where human–wildlife conflict is intense. We documented farmer perceptions and responses to crop-raiding wildlife from Kibale National Park, Uganda. Crop raiding was mostly (95%) by baboons (Papio anubis) and elephants (Loxodonta africana). While the financial loss caused by baboons and elephants did not differ, elephants were perceived as more damaging. Guarding and trenches were perceived as the most effective deterrent strategies for baboons and elephants, respectively. Distance from the park boundary and household income were significantly associated with a greater likelihood of crop raiding. Distance from the park, household head age and the species that raided crops, influenced whether a household applied one or more deterrent strategies. Households headed by women or older adults were most vulnerable, experiencing greater losses to raiding. Patterns of human–wildlife conflict around Kibale forest are complex, but the extent of crop damage was mostly determined by distance from the park and farm socio-economic status and thus their ability to mitigate or deter raiding. Managing crop raiding requires collaboration between the park and affected farmers to ensure that mutually managed deterrent methods, such as trenching (elephants) and guarding (baboons), are effectively shared, applied and maintained.     

Ecological function losses caused by monotonous land use induce crop raiding by wildlife on the island of Yakushima,southern Japan

Mass production is a logical outcome of price competition in a capitalist economy. It has resulted in the need for large-scale logging and planting of commercial crops. However, such monotonous land use, or monoculture, has damaged various ecological functions of forests and eroded the beneficial public service provided by forests. In Japan, the most widespread monotonous land use is associated with coniferous plantations, the expansion of which was encouraged by Forest Agency policies from 1958 that were aimed at increasing wood production. By 1986, half of all forested lands had been transformed into single-species conifer plantations. These policies may damage the ecological functions of forests: to provide stable habitats for forest wildlife. In particular, food supplies for wildlife have fluctuated greatly after several decades of logging. Some species have therefore changed their ecology and begun to explore novel environments proactively in order to adapt to such extreme fluctuations. Such species have started to use farmlands that neighbor the plantations. In this sense, crop raiding by wildlife can be regarded as a negative result of monotonous land use due to the loss of ecological functions. Therefore, habitat management to rehabilitate ecological functions and to reorganize the landscape will be required in order to resolve the problem of crop raiding by wildlife. This study examines crop raiding by Japanese deer (Cervus nippon) and monkeys (Macaca fuscata) on the island of Yakushima, which typifies crop-raiding situations in Japan.     

Use of wild and cultivated foods by chimpanzees at Bossou,Republic of Guinea: feeding dynamics in a human‐influenced environment

Increased human population growth and more conversions of natural habitat to agricultural land have resulted in greater proximity between humans and nonhuman primate species. Consequent increases in resource competition including crop‐raiding are a by‐product of both natural resources becoming less available and the nutritional benefits of cultivated foods becoming more known to the nonhuman primates. Chimpanzees at Bossou in the Republic of Guinea, West Africa, consume 17 different types of cultivated foods that are grown extensively throughout their small, fragmented home range. Direct observations of feeding behavior conducted over an 18‐month period revealed that during specific months crops account for up to one quarter of chimpanzee feeding time, with higher overall crop‐raiding levels throughout the periods of wild fruit scarcity. Some cultivated foods, especially sugar fruits, are mostly fallback foods, whereas others, such as rice pith (Oryza sp.) and maize (Zea mays), are consumed according to their availability even when wild foods are abundant. These findings highlight the importance of both crop choice by farmers and a thorough understanding of the ecology of resident primate species when establishing land management techniques for alleviating human–primate conflict. Am. J. Primatol. 71:636–646, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Coexistence Between Humans and Capuchins (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sapajus libidinosus</Emphasis>): Comparing Observational Data with Farmers’ Perceptions of Crop Losses

Foraging on anthropogenic food by wildlife is a prevalent form of human–wildlife interaction. Few studies have evaluated the impact of wildlife crop foraging in Neotropical areas where small-scale agriculture is practiced and the habitat has not been heavily altered. Our objectives were 1) to evaluate the perceptions of small-scale farmers living in southern Piauí (Brazil) of the impact of bearded capuchins (Sapajus libidinosus) on their crops and 2) quantify crop losses due to the monkeys and other vertebrates. In 2013, we interviewed 78 residents about the impact of capuchins on their crops. Subsequently, we recorded foraging by vertebrate animals in corn fields, and evaluated farmers’ crop losses. The farmers showed a positive attitude toward the capuchins and their perceptions of wildlife behavior were generally accurate. The impact of wildlife varied in relation to the field’s location, number of foraging individuals, and time spent foraging, as well as plant growth patterns. Vertebrates consumed between 23 and 100 % of the crops. Capuchins consumed the majority of crop losses, though birds consumed up to a third. The presence of a watchman reduced losses from wildlife by 66 %. In conclusion, although capuchins forage flexibly on anthropogenic crops, in a society relying on subsistence agriculture, their impact is perceived to be moderate overall. Peaceful coexistence between humans and monkeys favors conservation actions targeted toward protection of the capuchins and their habitat, both of which are seriously threatened by industrial agriculture in this region.     

Bioenergy crops Miscanthus x giganteus and Panicum virgatum reduce growth and survivorship of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Large-scale cultivation of plants used as biofuels is likely to alter the ecological interactions of current agricultural crops and their insect pests in a myriad of ways. Recent evidence suggests many contemporary maize pests will be able to use potential biofuel crops such as switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L., and miscanthus as hosts. To determine how suitable these biofuels are to the maize, Zea mays L., pest and generalist graminivore, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), we examined host plant preference and larval performance on foliage grown for commercial biofuel production. Larvae fed leaf tissue from both field- and greenhouse-grown switchgrass and miscanthus were monitored for survival, development, and food use relative to field-grown maize. Survivorship on biofuel crops was high on greenhouse-grown leaf tissue but severely reduced for field-grown switchgrass, and no larvae survived on field-grown miscanthus. Larvae fed field-grown tissue had larger head capsules yet achieved lower pupal weights because the increased toughness of the leaf tissue prevented the assimilation of nitrogen. Given that larvae overwhelmingly preferred maize to other biofuel crop species and that survival and performance were dramatically reduced on biofuel crop species, it is likely that biofuel crops, as grown for field cultivation, will suffer reduced damage from maize pests such as S. frugiperda because of reduced suitability.     

Conflict of Interest Between People and Baboons: Crop Raiding in Uganda

Much has been written about insect damage to standing crops, but an area that has received little attention within agricultural development, conservation, and primatological literature is that of primates and the potential damage they can cause to farmers' fields. This is likely to become an increasingly important issue for people interested in primates, as conservation projects adopt a more integrated approach to take account of local people's perspectives and needs. The aim of this paper is to examine the impact of crop raiding by primates, particularly baboons, on farmers living around the southern edge of the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. I use data gathered during monthly farm surveys and informal discussion groups, along with time budget data, to demonstrate that 1) baboons can cause extensive damage to field crops, such as maize and cassava; 2) proximity of the farm to the forest edge and the presence or absence of neighboring farms affect the likelihood of any farm sustaining crop damage from baboons; and 3) in addition to the direct costs associated with crop losses attributed to baboon foraging activity, there are indirect costs of baboon crop raiding such as increased labor demands to protect crops from them and, occasionally, to replant crop stands badly damaged by baboons. These results have important implications for future primate conservation policy and practice.     

Patterns and perceptions of wildlife crop raiding in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra

Crop raiding can reduce farmers' tolerance towards wildlife. Despite higher human population densities in rural areas, and more rapid conversion of forest to farmland, much less is known about crop raiding in Asia than in Africa. Over 14 months, we identified perceived and actual crop pests, and their patterns of crop raiding from farmland in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra. Farmers named either the wild boar Sus scrofa (80%) or the pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina (20%) as the two most destructive crop pests. From 5125 crop raids by 11 species of mammal, most raids were indeed made by the wild boar (56%) and the pig-tailed macaque (19%). For all species combined, temporal crop raiding peaks were positively correlated with periods of high rainfall. Spatially, most crop raids occurred nearest to the forest edge and the local guarding strategies used were ineffective. However, raids by wild boars were more extensive than raids by pig-tailed macaques, which caused much greater crop damage (73%) than wild boars (26%), contrary to farmers' perceptions. Our research suggests that alternative mitigation strategies need to be trialed over dry and rainy seasons to identify the most effective strategies and that guarding effort should be increased during the rainy seasons and tailored towards specific crop raiding species based on their unique spatial patterns.     

Population structure and behaviour of crop-raiding elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda

We examined patterns of crop raiding by elephants across gender and age classes in relation to elephant life history and sociobiology and estimated the quantitative contribution of crops to elephant diet in Kibale National Park (KNP). Elephant dung‐boli sizes were used to estimate age and sex, while the presence of crop remains in the dung of crop‐raiding elephants was used as evidence of repeated raiding. To estimate the expected proportion of elephants raiding per age class, the age distribution of raiders was compared with the age distribution of all KNP elephants. Elephants raiding crops were predominantly males. They began raiding in expected proportions at 10–14 years while a higher than expected proportion raided crops at 20–24 years. These results suggest that crop raiding is initiated at an age when male elephants leave their families and a large proportion of elephants raid when they are approaching reproductive competition. Evidence from dung of crop raiders, suggests that repeated raiding increases with age. Crop raiders derived 38% of their daily forage from the short time spent raiding, consistent with expectations of foraging theory. Males may be more likely to learn crop raiding because they are socially more independent and experience intense mating competition than females.     

The Human–Macaque Interface: Conservation Implications of Current and Future Overlap and Conflict in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia

Here, I examine overlapping resource use of forest and cultivated resources by villagers and tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. An integrative research design was employed, using methods from primatology and cultural anthropology, in conjunction with quantitative measurements of cacao crop loss. The results indicate that the current patterns of overlapping resource use may not be severely affecting the tonkean macaques or villagers in Lindu. The research does, however, point to possible future difficulty if cacao crop raiding by macaques increases, and as changing socioeconomic trends and loss of traditional folklore result in further modification of macaque habitat. Successful strategies to ameliorate human–macaque conflict may require efforts aimed at the adoption of alternative buffer zone crops that use shade-management systems, the deliberate protection of important macaque food species, and increasing local tolerance to crop raiding by exploring the role of macaques in forest regeneration.     

Seasonal variation of feeding patterns and food selection by crop-raiding elephants in Zimbabwe

Elephants and humans are increasingly coming into conflict because of the conversion of elephant habitat into agricultural areas. In order to identify trends that influence raiding behaviour, the nutritional makeup of food items consumed by crop‐raiding elephants over a 2‐year period were analysed and a trigger for crop raiding was identified. The point at which the quality of wild grasses declines below the quality of crop species corresponded to the movement of bull elephants out of a protected area and into fields. This finding may have wider implications for developing predictive models of elephant/human interactions.     

贵州麻阳河地区黑叶猴的食性观察

１９９５￣１９９７年对黑叶猴进行野处食性观察,结果表明：（１）对农作物的取食时间是影响其取食植物种类多少的主要因子;（２）其取食部位季节性明显;（３）各季节取食时间长短与了食农作物时间呈负相关;（４）各季节食物交叉性不强。     

Soil and crop management strategies to prevent iron deficiency in crops

Plants and humans cannot easily acquire iron from their nutrient sources although it is abundant in nature. Thus, iron deficiency is one of the major limiting factors affecting crop yields, food quality and human nutrition. Therefore, approaches need to be developed to increase Fe uptake by roots, transfer to edible plant portions and absorption by humans from plant food sources. Integrated strategies for soil and crop management are attractive not only for improving growing conditions for crops but also for exploiting a plant??s potential for Fe mobilization and utilization. Recent research progress in soil and crop management has provided the means to resolve complex plant Fe nutritional problems through manipulating the rhizosphere (e.g., rhizosphere fertilization and water regulation), and crop management (includes managing cropping systems and screening for Fe efficient species and varieties). Some simple and effective soil management practices, termed ??rhizosphere fertilization?? (such as root feeding and bag fertilization) have been developed and widely used by local farmers in China to improve the Fe nutrition of fruit plants. Production practices for rice cultivation are shifting from paddy-rice to aerobic rice to make more efficient use of irrigation water. This shift has brought about increases in Fe deficiency in rice, a new challenge depressing iron availability in rice and reducing Fe supplies to humans. Current crop management strategies addressing Fe deficiency include Fe foliar application, trunk injection, plant breeding for enriched Fe crop species and varieties, and selection of cropping systems. Managing cropping systems, such as intercropping strategies may have numerous advantages in terms of increasing Fe availability to plants. Studies of intercropping systems on peanut/maize, wheat/chickpea and guava/sorghum or -maize increased Fe content of crops and their seed, which suggests that a reasonable intercropping system of iron-efficient species could prevent or mitigate Fe deficiency in Fe-inefficient plants. This review provides a comprehensive comparison of the strategies that have been developed to address Fe deficiency and discusses the most recent advance in soil and crop management to improve the Fe nutrition of crops. These proofs of concept studies will serve as the basis for future Fe research and for integrated and optimized management strategies to alleviate Fe deficiency in farmers?? fields.     

On farm plant reintroduction: A decision framework for plant conservation translocation in EU agro-ecosystems

The increased demand of food produced through sustainable agriculture has resulted in localised amelioration of intensive management imposed by agroecosystems. However, these newly available niches are often isolated and plant species may not be able to recolonise fragmented agroecosystems from where they have been extirpated. Plant reintroduction can overcome dispersal limitation in agroecosystems but may also generate conflicts that jeopardise conservation efforts. Conflicts arise when reintroductions are perceived to place constraints on the management and productivity of agroecosystems: the translocated plants may require space sharing with crops, may have negative effects on crop yields, and come with the expectation that farmers must modify their farming practices and accommodate legal obligations deriving from protected species status. Benefits include economic incentives that pay farmers through CAP, the conservation of nature, ecosystem services, an effective marketing strategy and increased aesthetic value that might generate ecotourism.We discuss the practical implications of the abovementioned issues by reference to two cases of European species in which different approaches to reintroduction resulted in opposite outcomes (i.e., consensus vs. opposition). Coexistence of threatened plants and crops is possible if farmers and local stakeholders are involved in a conservation project from an early stage and if farmers conservation efforts turn into benefits for their income. Based on these considerations, we propose a strategic framework to promote reintroduction of threatened plants in agroecosystems (land sharing) and policy advancement aimed at recognising the role of farmers in maintaining biodiversity on their lands.     

Crop Damage by Primates: Quantifying the Key Parameters of Crop-Raiding Events

Human-wildlife conflict often arises from crop-raiding, and insights regarding which aspects of raiding events determine crop loss are essential when developing and evaluating deterrents. However, because accounts of crop-raiding behaviour are frequently indirect, these parameters are rarely quantified or explicitly linked to crop damage. Using systematic observations of the behaviour of non-human primates on farms in western Uganda, this research identifies number of individuals raiding and duration of raid as the primary parameters determining crop loss. Secondary factors include distance travelled onto farm, age composition of the raiding group, and whether raids are in series. Regression models accounted for greater proportions of variation in crop loss when increasingly crop and species specific. Parameter values varied across primate species, probably reflecting differences in raiding tactics or perceptions of risk, and thereby providing indices of how comfortable primates are on-farm. Median raiding-group sizes were markedly smaller than the typical sizes of social groups. The research suggests that key parameters of raiding events can be used to measure the behavioural impacts of deterrents to raiding. Furthermore, farmers will benefit most from methods that discourage raiding by multiple individuals, reduce the size of raiding groups, or decrease the amount of time primates are on-farm. This study demonstrates the importance of directly relating crop loss to the parameters of raiding events, using systematic observations of the behaviour of multiple primate species.     

Polyploidy and the evolution of domesticated plants

Polyploidy and domestication are common features of plant evolution. A number of selective advantages conferred by polyploidy appear relevant to domestication. Surprisingly, the correlation between the two has not previously been examined. Anderson (Plants, man and life. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1969) asserted that we do not yet know exactly what percentage of cultivated plants and weeds are polyploid, but it must be high. Heiser (Seeds to civilization, the story of food, 2d ed., W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA, 1981) stated that a large number of the major food crops are polyploids, giving wheat, sugar cane, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and bananas as examples. In this study, the distribution of polyploidy in 244 crop species was compared to the estimates of polyploidy in their respective higher categories. The proportion of polyploidy in crop plants was considered in relation to taxonomic origin, habitat, and reproductive strategies of the crops. The study showed that the crop species were a random selection as far as ploidy level is concerned and that domestication did not appear to have favored polyploid over diploid genomes or vice versa. Vegetative, seed, and tree crops were statistically homogenous in their polyploid composition. The distribution of polyploidy in annual and perennial crops did not differ statistically. The data imply that polyploid genomic constitution neither facilitated nor hindered the ability of wild species for domestication.     

Buton macaques (Macaca ochreata brunnescens): crops, conflict, and behavior on farms

One consequence of anthropogenic habitat alteration is that many nonhuman primates are forced into conflict interactions with humans and their livelihood activities, especially through crop raiding. These problems are particularly acute for the endemic and threatened Buton Island macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens), in southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Our study investigated the crop raiding behavior of this species over time. Foods eaten and the behavioral repertoire exhibited by macaques during crop raiding at and inside farm perimeters were observed over a period of 8 years (2002–2009). Storage organ crops (e.g. sweet potato) were abundant and most frequently raided by macaques. Individual macaques were most commonly observed to raid close (0–10 m) to farm perimeters. Activities such as feeding, resting, moving, and social interaction varied significantly as a function of penetration distance into the farm, but only marginally between age‐sex classes. The annual average raid frequency per farm decreased over the latter years of the study period, raising questions about changes in macaque foraging and ranging behavior over time and their response to farm management and mitigation strategies. Am. J. Primatol. 74:29–36, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Assessing the cost of living with elephants (Loxodonta africana) in areas adjacent to Meru National Park,Kenya

Crop raiding by the elephants is a serious and recurring management problem around protected areas in Kenya such as Meru National Park. Crop-raiding menace is one of the most significant of human–elephant conflicts in Meru National Park. The distribution, impact, and conservation implications of the increased elephant crop raiding in areas adjacent to Meru National Park is attributed to the changes in land use systems within these areas. Crop raiding by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) was monitored in the area adjacent to Meru National Park between August 2010 and July 2011. From the study, 144 farms were raided and farmers lost crops amounting to USD 120,308.60. Crop raiding was higher during the month of August 2010 (KES 2,714,295 or USD 33,928). The study suggests capacity building for communities in order to safeguard their crops against elephant raiding. Other probable measures put forward to mitigate this include the development of alternative water sources and the need to implement electric fence around the remaining section of the Park boundary which is affected by elephant.