Cooperation: The roles of interpersonal value and gratitude

Here we examine the roles of interpersonal valuation and gratitude in the formation of cooperative relationships. Building on prior work, we draw on the concept of a welfare tradeoff ratio (WTR), an internally computed index of the extent to which one person values another person's welfare relative to his or her own. We test several predictions regarding the effects of benefit delivery on changes in WTR, gratitude, and subsequent cooperation. We show that benefit delivery by a stranger: (i) raises the beneficiary's valuation of the stranger's welfare, (ii) predicts downstream cooperative behavior by the beneficiary toward the stranger, and (iii) is coincident with beneficiaries' expressions of gratitude. We find evidence that cooperation and gratitude, while both sparked via benefit delivery and both underpinned by estimates of welfare valuation, are nevertheless produced in parallel via different paths. Specifically, the updated magnitude—not the initial magnitude or degree of change—of a beneficiary's WTR toward a stranger predicts the beneficiary's downstream cooperative behavior. By contrast, the extent to which the beneficiary's WTR positively changes—and not the initial or updated WTR magnitude—predicts gratitude production, a feature proposed to reinforce the benefactor's actions and foreshadow future cooperative intent on the part of the beneficiary. Taken together, our findings point to the possibility that cooperative behavior might operate via internal estimates of welfare valuation, and that gratitude signals benefit reception and the intent to engage in a cooperative relationship.     

Gratitude Depends on the Relational Model of Communal Sharing

We studied the relation between benefits, perception of social relationships and gratitude. Across three studies, we provide evidence that benefits increase gratitude to the extent to which one applies a mental model of a communal relationship. In Study 1, the communal sharing relational model, and no other relational models, predicted the amount of gratitude participants felt after imagining receiving a benefit from a new acquaintance. In Study 2, participants recalled a large benefit they had received. Applying a communal sharing relational model increased feelings of gratitude for the benefit. In Study 3, we manipulated whether the participant or another person received a benefit from an unknown other. Again, we found that the extent of communal sharing perceived in the relationship with the stranger predicted gratitude. An additional finding of Study 2 was that communal sharing predicted future gratitude regarding the relational partner in a longitudinal design. To conclude, applying a communal sharing model predicts gratitude regarding concrete benefits and regarding the relational partner, presumably because one perceives the communal partner as motivated to meet one''s needs. Finally, in Study 3, we found in addition that being the recipient of a benefit without opportunity to repay directly increased communal sharing, and indirectly increased gratitude. These circumstances thus seem to favor the attribution of communal norms, leading to a communal sharing representation and in turn to gratitude. We discuss the importance of relational models as mental representations of relationships for feelings of gratitude.     

Young Children Are More Generous When Others Are Aware of Their Actions

Adults frequently employ reputation-enhancing strategies when engaging in prosocial acts, behaving more generously when their actions are likely to be witnessed by others and even more so when the extent of their generosity is made public. This study examined the developmental origins of sensitivity to cues associated with reputationally motivated prosociality by presenting five-year-olds with the option to provide one or four stickers to a familiar peer recipient at no cost to themselves. We systematically manipulated the recipient’s knowledge of the actor’s choices in two different ways: (1) occluding the recipient’s view of both the actor and the allocation options and (2) presenting allocations in opaque containers whose contents were visible only to the actor. Children were consistently generous only when the recipient was fully aware of the donation options; in all cases in which the recipient was not aware of the donation options, children were strikingly ungenerous. These results demonstrate that five-year-olds exhibit “strategic prosociality,” behaving differentially generous as a function of the amount of information available to the recipient about their actions. These findings suggest that long before they develop a rich understanding of the social significance of reputation or are conscious of complex strategic reasoning, children behave more generously when the details of their prosocial actions are available to others.     

Energetics of mice in stable and unstable social conditions: Evidence of an air-borne factor affecting metabolism

The metabolic rates of laboratory mice were compared in three conditions: isolated mice, mice paired together over six days (stable groups), and mice paired with strange partners daily (unstable groups). Stable pairs had 15% lower metabolic rates than either isolated or unstable pairs. In other experiments when two mice were placed in separate metabolic chambers and connected together via an air flow, the metabolic rate of the recipient in the series was 35% lower than the donor. The data suggest that a ‘factor’ produced by the donor mouse was passed via the air supply into the recipient's chamber.     

Gratefully Received,Gratefully Repaid: The Role of Perceived Fairness in Cooperative Interactions

It is well documented that people would remunerate fair behaviours and penalize unfair behaviours. It is argued that individuals’ reactions following the receipt of a gift depend on the perceived intentions of the donors. Fair intentions should prompt positive affect, like gratitude, triggering cooperative behaviours; while intended unfairness should trigger negative affect, like anger, fostering anti-social actions. It is, however, contended that when people lack information to infer others’ intention they may use ‘normative’ beliefs about fairness - what a typical fair individual ‘should’ do in these circumstances – to guide their behaviour. In this experiment we examined this assertion. We had 122 participants play a one-shot, double-anonymous game with half playing as potential helpers (P1s) and half as recipients (P2s). Whether a participant was a P1 or P2 was chance-determined and all participants knew this. P1s decided whether to help P2s and whether to make their help unconditional (no repayment needed) or conditional (full or ‘taxed’ repayment). P2s decided whether to accept the offer and whatever conditions attached but were blind to the list of helping options available to P1s. We anticipated that recipients would refer to the ‘injunctive norm’ that ‘fair people should help “for free” when it is only by chance that they are in a position to help’. Therefore, without knowing P1s’ different helping options, unconditional offers should be rated by recipients as fairer than conditional offers, and this should be linked to greater gratitude with greater gratitude linked to greater reciprocation. Path analyses confirmed this serial mediation. The results showed that recipients of unconditional offers, compared to conditional ones, interpreted the helpers’ motives as more helpful, experienced greater gratitude and were more eager to reciprocate. The behavioural data further revealed that, when given a latter option to default, 38% of recipients of conditional offers did so.     

The amplifying role of need in giving decisions

Hamilton's rule predicts that altruism should depend on costs incurred and benefits provided, but these depend on the relative needs of the donor and recipient. Rewriting Hamilton's rule to account for relative need suggests an amplifying effect of need on relatedness, but not necessarily other relationship qualities. In a reanalysis of three studies of social discounting and a new replication, we find that relative need amplifies the effects of relatedness on giving in two samples of U.S. adults recruited online, but not U.S. undergraduates or Indian adults recruited online. Among U.S. online participants, the effect of genetic kinship was greater when the partner was perceived to be in higher need than when in lower need. In the other samples, relatedness and greater partner need were associated with greater giving, but the effect of relatedness on giving was not significantly amplified by need. Need never amplified the effect of social closeness on giving, although it did diminish the effect of closeness in U.S. undergraduates, likely reflecting a ceiling effect. These results confirm predictions from a modification of Hamilton's rule in a sample of U.S. adults, but raise important questions about why they hold in some samples but not others. They also illustrate the importance of understanding how contextual factors, such as relative need, can moderate the importance of common variables used in evolutionary cost-benefit analyses.     

‘Would it sell more pork?’ Pig farmers’ perceptions of Real Welfare,the welfare outcome component of their farm assurance scheme

In the UK, the pig industry is leading the way in the adoption of welfare outcome measures as part of their farm assurance scheme. The welfare outcome assessment (WOA), known as Real Welfare, is conducted by the farmers’ own veterinary surgeon. For the first time, this has allowed the pig industry to evaluate welfare by directly assessing the animal itself and to document the welfare of the UK pig industry as a whole. Farmer perspectives of the addition of a welfare outcome assessment to their farm assurance scheme have yet to be explored. Here, we investigate how the introduction of the Real Welfare protocol has been perceived by the farmers involved, what value it has (if any), whether any practical changes on farm have been a direct consequence of Real Welfare and ultimately whether they consider that the welfare of their pigs has been improved by the introduction of the Real Welfare protocol. Semi-structured interviews with 15 English pig farmers were conducted to explore their perceptions and experiences of the Real Welfare process. Our findings fall into three key areas: the lived experience of Real Welfare, on-farm changes resulting from Real Welfare and suggested improvements to the Real Welfare process as it currently stands. In all the three areas, the value farmers placed on the addition of WOA appeared to reflect their veterinary surgeon’s attitude towards the Real Welfare protocol. If the vet was engaged in the process and actively included the farmer, for example through discussion of their findings, the farmers interviewed had a greater appreciation of the benefits of Real Welfare themselves. It is recommended that future similar schemes should work with veterinary surgeons to ensure their understanding and engagement with the process, as well as identifying and promoting how the scheme will practically benefit individual farmers rather than assuming that they will be motivated to engage for the good of the industry alone. Retailers should be encouraged to use Real Welfare as a marketing tool for pig products to enhance the perceived commercial value of this protocol to farmers.     

Laparoscopic embryo transfer in domestic sheep: A preliminary study

An effective, minor-invasive technique for embryo transfer in sheep was developed using a laparoscopic transabdominal approach. Twelve recipient ewes received embryos either by conventional laparotomy or by laparoscopy. The estrous cycle of recipient ewes was synchronized using a progestagen-impregnated vaginal pessary/pregnant mares' serum gonadotropin treatment regimen. Donor ewes were superovulated with follicle stimulating hormone or human menopausal gonadotropin, bred with a ram of one breed and laparoscopically inseminated $\text{in}$$\text{utero}$ with semen from a different sheep breed. Five to six days after estrus, embryos were transferred laparoscopically into the terminal one-half of the recipient's uterine horn ipsilateral to the ovary with prominent corpus luteum development. Pregnancy was diagnosed by transrectal ultrasonic procedures, and by direct laparoscopic examination of the uterus. Of six laparoscopic transfers, three resulted in single births; one of six laparotomy transfers resulted in a live birth. Breed appearances of the four lambs born indicated that two of the offspring resulted from laparoscopic artificial insemination of the donor ewe. The results demonstrated that laparoscopic transfer of embryos was a rapid and safe procedure, easily applied to an ovine embryo transfer program and with potential for similiar studies in other species.     

Valuation study of urban bushland at Hartfield Park, Forrestfield, Western Australia

Summary Hartfield Park bushland represents a typical area of Perth urban bushland, and is identified as one site worthy of protection in the Western Australian Government's Bush Forever Plan. Two thirds of the Reserve is developed and parts of the remaining bushland are under threat of future development for parking and playing fields. This paper reports a study undertaken to estimate the economic value placed by the community on a specified urban bushland site using the contingent valuation method, a stated preference, non‐market valuation technique which captures both use and non‐use values. Because environmental goods such as urban bushland exist without organized markets, they are often omitted from the decision‐making process regarding the socially optimal management of resources. In estimating a valuation for Hartfield Park, it may be included in any cost–benefit analysis conducted for the site in future. A survey was conducted across the Perth metropolitan area during April 2001 that involved the mail out of 1000 questionnaires to names and addresses obtained at random from the Western Australia Electoral Roll. A 54% response rate was obtained. Regression analysis was used to predict the probability of people being willing to pay for the preservation of this urban bushland and the significant predictors of willingness to pay related to income and educational levels rather than proximity to or knowledge of the site. Willingness to pay was also estimated and the results indicate a conservative mean willingness to pay for the preservation of the bushland of $A21.60 per person per annum. Extrapolation of this figure across the total adult metropolitan community resulted in an estimated valuation of $A16.6 million. Median willingness to pay was also estimated and equalled $A4.35 per person per annum with a valuation for the total adult metropolitan community equal to $A3.3 million. Extrapolation of these mean and median figures across Perth households rather than adult individuals resulted in an estimated valuation of $A9.6 million and $A1.9 million, respectively. These figures indicate that the community value for this environmental amenity may exceed the costs of providing alternative facilities elsewhere.     

Economic Valuation of Health Care Services in Public Health Systems: A Study about Willingness to Pay (WTP) for Nursing Consultations

Background

Identifying the economic value assigned by users to a particular health service is of principal interest in planning the service. The aim of this study was to evaluate the perception of economic value of nursing consultation in primary care (PC) by its users.

Methods and Results

Economic study using contingent valuation methodology. A total of 662 users of nursing consultation from 23 health centers were included. Data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, health needs, pattern of usage, and satisfaction with provided service were compiled. The validity of the response was evaluated by an explanatory mixed-effects multilevel model in order to assess the factors associated with the response according to the welfare theory. Response reliability was also evaluated. Subjects included in the study indicated an average Willingness to Pay (WTP) of €14.4 (CI 95%: €13.2–15.5; median €10) and an average Willingness to Accept [Compensation] (WTA) of €20.9 (CI 95%: €19.6–22.2; median €20). Average area income, personal income, consultation duration, home visit, and education level correlated with greater WTP. Women and older subjects showed lower WTP. Fixed parameters explained 8.41% of the residual variability, and response clustering in different health centers explained 4–6% of the total variability. The influence of income on WTP was different in each center. The responses for WTP and WTA in a subgroup of subjects were consistent when reassessed after 2 weeks (intraclass correlation coefficients 0.952 and 0.893, respectively).

Conclusions

The economic value of nursing services provided within PC in a public health system is clearly perceived by its user. The perception of this value is influenced by socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the subjects and their environment, and by the unique characteristics of the evaluated service. The method of contingent valuation is useful for making explicit this perception of value of health services.     

Newly Exerted T Cell Pressures on Mutated Epitopes following Transmission Help Maintain Consensus HIV-1 Sequences

CD8⁺ T cells are important for HIV-1 virus control, but are also a major contributing factor that drives HIV-1 virus sequence evolution. Although HIV-1 cytotoxic T cell (CTL) escape mutations are a common aspect during HIV-1 infection, less is known about the importance of T cell pressure in reversing HIV-1 virus back to a consensus sequences. In this study we aimed to assess the frequency with which reversion of transmitted mutations in T cell epitopes were associated with T cell responses to the mutation. This study included 14 HIV-1 transmission pairs consisting of a ‘source’ (virus-donor) and a ‘recipient’ (newly infected individual). Non-consensus B sequence amino acids (mutations) in T cell epitopes in HIV-1 gag regions p17, p24, p2 and p7 were identified in each pair and transmission of mutations to the recipient was verified with population viral sequencing. Longitudinal analyses of the recipient’s viral sequence were used to identify whether reversion of mutations back to the consensus B sequence occurred. Autologous 12-mer peptides overlapping by 11 were synthesized, representing the sequence region surrounding each reversion and longitudinal analysis of T cell responses to source-derived mutated and reverted epitopes were assessed. We demonstrated that mutations in the source were frequently transmitted to the new host and on an average 17 percent of mutated epitopes reverted to consensus sequence in the recipient. T cell responses to these mutated epitopes were detected in 7 of the 14 recipients in whom reversion occurred. Overall, these findings indicate that transmitted non-consensus B epitopes are frequently immunogenic in HLA-mismatched recipients and new T cell pressures to T cell escape mutations following transmission play a significant role in maintaining consensus HIV-1 sequences.     

Heterotopic Auxiliary Rat Liver Transplantation With Flow-regulated Portal Vein Arterialization in Acute Hepatic Failure

In acute hepatic failure auxiliary liver transplantation is an interesting alternative approach. The aim is to provide a temporary support until the failing native liver has regenerated.^1-3 The APOLT-method, the orthotopic implantation of auxiliary segments- averts most of the technical problems. However this method necessitates extensive resections of both the native liver and the graft.⁴ In 1998, Erhard developed the heterotopic auxiliary liver transplantation (HALT) utilizing portal vein arterialization (PVA) (Figure 1). This technique showed promising initial clinical results.^5-6 We developed a HALT-technique with flow-regulated PVA in the rat to examine the influence of flow-regulated PVA on graft morphology and function (Figure 2).A liver graft reduced to 30 % of its original size, was heterotopically implanted in the right renal region of the recipient after explantation of the right kidney.  The infra-hepatic caval vein of the graft was anastomosed with the infrahepatic caval vein of the recipient. The arterialization of the donor’s portal vein was carried out via the recipient’s right renal artery with the stent technique. The blood-flow regulation of the arterialized portal vein was achieved with the use of a stent with an internal diameter of 0.3 mm. The celiac trunk of the graft was end-to-side anastomosed with the recipient’s aorta and the bile duct was implanted into the duodenum. A subtotal resection of the native liver was performed to induce acute hepatic failure. ⁷In this manner 112 transplantations were performed. The perioperative survival rate was 90% and the 6-week survival rate was 80%. Six weeks after operation, the native liver regenerated, showing an increase in weight from 2.3±0.8 g to 9.8±1 g. At this time, the graft’s weight decreased from 3.3±0.8 g to 2.3±0.8 g.We were able to obtain promising long-term results in terms of graft morphology and function. HALT with flow-regulated PVA reliably bridges acute hepatic failure until the native liver regenerates.     

PINK1 drives production of mtDNA-containing extracellular vesicles to promote invasiveness

The cystine-glutamate antiporter, xCT, supports a glutathione synthesis program enabling cancer cells to cope with metabolically stressful microenvironments. Up-regulated xCT, in combination with glutaminolysis, leads to increased extracellular glutamate, which promotes invasive behavior by activating metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 (mGluR3). Here we show that activation of mGluR3 in breast cancer cells activates Rab27-dependent release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which can transfer invasive characteristics to “recipient” tumor cells. These EVs contain mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is packaged via a PINK1-dependent mechanism. We highlight mtDNA as a key EV cargo necessary and sufficient for intercellular transfer of invasive behavior by activating Toll-like receptor 9 in recipient cells, and this involves increased endosomal trafficking of pro-invasive receptors. We propose that an EV-mediated mechanism, through which altered cellular metabolism in one cell influences endosomal trafficking in other cells, is key to generation and dissemination of pro-invasive microenvironments during mammary carcinoma progression.     

Laser fibre optics in biotechnology

Tomorrow's instrumentation in the biological sciences depends on today's research and development elsewhere. This introductory, non-specialist review aims to explain some of the present activity in laser light-scattering and optical-fibre laboratories and speculates on how recent developments might be brought together in new instrumentation to benefit the biotechnologist.     

Perceptions of Social Responsibility of Prominent Animal Welfare Groups

Nonhuman animal welfare is an increasingly important component of consumer expectations of corporate social responsibility (CSR). The extent to which prominent animal welfare or protection organizations may influence people’s perceptions of food industry CSR may be related to an organization’s perceived social responsibility. Data from an online survey of 300 U.S. residents were used to explore relationships between demographics/lifestyle choices and perceptions of prominent animal welfare organizations (using best–worst scaling methodology). Overall, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was perceived to be the most socially responsible organization analyzed, followed by the Humane Society of the United States and the American Humane Association (AHA). Results suggest that the perceived social responsibility of animal protection organizations in this study was not strongly linked to personally (financially) supporting them, with 2 exceptions: the perceptions of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals and AHA. Improved understanding of the perception of animal welfare or protection organizations can inform decision making by organizations interested in furthering animal welfare causes.     

Are Dogs Able to Communicate with Their Owners about a Desirable Food in a Referential and Intentional Way?

The ability of dogs to use human communicative signals has been exhaustively studied. However, few studies have focused on the production of communicative signals by dogs. The current study investigated if dogs are able to communicate by using directional signals towards some desirable object in the environment and also if they show an apparent intention to manipulate their owner’s behavior in order to receive it. Some operational criteria were used to investigate referential and intentional communication: the signal should be influenced by the audience and by the recipient’s direction of visual attention; the sender should display gaze alternations between the recipient and the object and attention-getting behaviors, and, finally, the sender should persist and elaborate the communication when attempts to manipulate the recipient failed. Aiming to investigate these criteria in dogs, 29 subjects were tested using an experimental set up in which they could see a desirable but unreachable food and they needed the cooperation of their owners in order to receive it. This study found evidence of all operational criteria, especially for gaze alternation between the owner and the food, which suggested that some dogs’ communicative behaviors could be functionally referential and intentional. Nevertheless, similar to other studies about social cognition in animals, it is not possible to distinguish if the dog’s behaviors are based on simple mechanisms or on a theory of mind about their owners.     

Precocious recovery from allotype suppression in transiently chimeric rabbits

Rabbits suppressed for paternal immunoglobulin allotypes specified by the b locus were injected with spleen cells from non-inbred donors at the age of 1 month. This resulted in transient chimerism as shown by the appearance of 10 to >200 μg of donor type Ig per milliliter recipient's serum 1 to 2 weeks after cell transfer. Antibody production by donor cells could not be demonstrated during their survival in the recipients. If, and only if, the donor cells produced Ig of the suppressed allotype, the release from suppression was expedited as judged by the time of appearance and increase of lymphoid cells with membrane-bound Ig of the suppressed type, and also by the onset and rise of secreted Ig of this type in the recipients' sera.     

The ecological rationality of helping others: Potential helpers integrate cues of recipients' need and willingness to sacrifice

Why do humans help others? Many theories focus on dimensions like kinship or reciprocity. On their surface, these theories seem unable to explain help directed at fleeting strangers. In response to this puzzle, researchers have proposed that the mind has ecologically rational systems for providing aid. These systems respond to cues that predicted adaptive behavior during human evolution, regardless of whether such cues continue to be predictive in modern environments. In three studies, we test for two cues that might predict whether a potential benefactor will help a potential recipient: the need of the recipient and the extent to which the recipient is willing to sacrifice for the benefactor. Both cues, in ancestral environments, have the potential to predict whether a long-term relationship might be established. Consistent with past research, we find that both cues matter: Needy people and people willing to sacrifice are helped more. However, the cues are not merely additive: In some cases, the cue of need is ignored and only willingness to sacrifice is used. We discuss these results in terms of recent evolutionary theories of emotions.     

The primacy of trust within romantic relationships: Evidence from conjoint analysis of HEXACO-derived personality profiles

Mate preference research often focuses on traits that indicate a romantic partner's personal worth (e.g., their physical attractiveness, resource potential) rather than their tendency to leverage that worth for mutual vs. zero-sum benefit (i.e., their trustworthiness). No one has assessed the contribution of trustworthiness to perceived mate value relative to other personality dimensions. Here we examined the desirability of a partner's trustworthiness relative to five other personality indicators of mate quality during initial partner selection. Participants (n = 918) ranked multivariate partner profiles constructed from the HEXACO model of personality (i.e., honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) and provided partner ratings for each trait. Using conjoint analysis, we found that honesty-humility influenced participants' ranking decisions substantially more than each other characteristic (all Cohen's ds > 0.62). This was true for both long- (i.e., committed) and short-term (i.e., purely sexual) partner evaluations, though honesty-humility was relatively more important for long- vs. short-term contexts. There were no sex differences. A different pattern, including sex differences, emerged for partner ratings. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that the challenge of avoiding romantic interpersonal predation may have been a relatively stronger selection pressure during the evolution of human mate preference than has the challenge of identifying other valuable partner traits.     

Psychological Determinants of Consumer Acceptance of Personalised Nutrition in 9 European Countries

Objective

To develop a model of the psychological factors which predict people’s intention to adopt personalised nutrition. Potential determinants of adoption included perceived risk and benefit, perceived self-efficacy, internal locus of control and health commitment.

Methods

A questionnaire, developed from exploratory study data and the existing theoretical literature, and including validated psychological scales was administered to N = 9381 participants from 9 European countries (Germany, Greece, Ireland, Poland, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, the UK, and Norway).

Results

Structural equation modelling indicated that the greater participants’ perceived benefits to be associated with personalised nutrition, the more positive their attitudes were towards personalised nutrition, and the greater their intention to adopt it. Higher levels of nutrition self-efficacy were related to more positive attitudes towards, and a greater expressed intention to adopt, personalised nutrition. Other constructs positively impacting attitudes towards personalised nutrition included more positive perceptions of the efficacy of regulatory control to protect consumers (e.g. in relation to personal data protection), higher self-reported internal health locus of control, and health commitment. Although higher perceived risk had a negative relationship with attitude and an inverse relationship with perceived benefit, its effects on attitude and intention to adopt personalised nutrition was less influential than perceived benefit. The model was stable across the different European countries, suggesting that psychological factors determining adoption of personalised nutrition have generic applicability across different European countries.

Conclusion

The results suggest that transparent provision of information about potential benefits, and protection of consumers’ personal data is important for adoption, delivery of public health benefits, and commercialisation of personalised nutrition.