Genes implicated in serotonergic and dopaminergic functioning predict BMI categories

Objective: This study addressed the hypothesis that variation in genes associated with dopamine function (SLC6A3, DRD2, DRD4), serotonin function (SLC6A4, and regulation of monoamine levels (MAOA) may be predictive of BMI categories (obese and overweight + obese) in young adulthood and of changes in BMI as adolescents transition into young adulthood. Interactions with gender and race/ethnicity were also examined. Methods and Procedures: Participants were a subsample of individuals from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative sample of adolescents followed from 1995 to 2002. The sample analyzed included a subset of 1,584 unrelated individuals with genotype data. Multiple logistic regressions were conducted to evaluate the associations between genotypes and obesity (BMI > 29.9) or overweight + obese combined (BMI ≥ 25) with normal weight (BMI = 18.5–24.9) as a referent. Linear regression models were used to examine change in BMI from adolescence to young adulthood. Results: Significant associations were found between SLC6A4 5HTTLPR and categories of BMI, and between MAOA promoter variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) among men and categories of BMI. Stratified analyses revealed that the association between these two genes and excess BMI was significant for men overall and for white and Hispanic men specifically. Linear regression models indicated a significant effect of SLC6A4 5HTTLPR on change in BMI from adolescence to young adulthood. Discussion: Our findings lend further support to the involvement of genes implicated in dopamine and serotonin regulation on energy balance.     

A 30‐year Follow‐up of the Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect on Obesity in Adulthood

Childhood maltreatment has been implicated as a risk factor for adult obesity. We describe the first prospective assessment of adult obesity in individuals with documented histories of childhood physical and sexual abuse and neglect and a matched comparison group in a 30‐year follow‐up. Using a prospective cohort design, children with court substantiated cases of physical and sexual abuse and neglect (ages 0–11 years) from a Midwest county during 1967–1971 (n = 410) were matched with children without histories of abuse or neglect on age, sex, race/ethnicity and approximate family social class (n = 303) and followed up and assessed at mean age 41. Outcome measures include BMI and obesity assessed in 2003–2004 as part of a medical status examination and interview. Childhood physical abuse predicted significantly higher BMI scores in adulthood (β = 0.14, P < 0.05), even controlling for demographic characteristics, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption (β = 0.16, P < 0.01). Childhood sexual abuse (β = 0.07, not significant) and neglect (β = 0.02, not significant) were not significant predictors of adult BMI scores. These results demonstrate the long‐term impact of childhood physical abuse on weight into adulthood and suggest that physically abused children may be at risk for other adverse health outcomes associated with increased weight. Health professionals need to understand this risk for physically abused children and researchers should identify and evaluate strategies for effective interventions.     

Food insecurity and increased BMI in young adult women

Food insecurity has been associated with weight status in children and adults although results have been mixed. We aimed to identify whether food insecurity was associated with BMI in young adults and whether this association differed by gender and was modified by food stamp use and the presence of children in the home. Cross-sectional data from wave 4 (2007-2008) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were analyzed. Multiple linear regression was used to investigate the association between food insecurity and BMI in gender stratified models of young adult women (n = 7,116) and men (n = 6,604) controlling for age, race/ethnicity, income, education, physical activity, smoking, alcohol use, the presence of children in the home, and food stamp use in young adulthood and/or adolescence. Food insecurity was more common in young adult women (14%) than young adult men (9%). After controlling for a variety of individual variables, food insecure women had a BMI that was on average 0.9 kg/m(2) units higher than women who were food secure. This difference in BMI persisted after controlling for recent or past food stamp use and was not different among women with or without children in the household. No relationship was found between food insecurity and BMI in young adult men. Providers should inquire about food insecurity, especially when treating obesity, and policy initiatives should address the role of access to healthy food in those facing food insecurity.     

Body Mass Index and the Prevalence of Hypertension and Dyslipidemia

Objective: To describe and evaluate relationships between body mass index (BMI) and blood pressure, cholesterol, high‐density lipoprotein‐cholesterol (HDL‐C), and hypertension and dyslipidemia. Research Methods and Procedures: A national survey of adults in the United States that included measurement of height, weight, blood pressure, and lipids (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III 1988–1994). Crude age‐adjusted, age‐specific means and proportions, and multivariate odds ratios that quantify the association between hypertension or dyslipidemia and BMI, controlling for race/ethnicity, education, and smoking habits are presented. Results: More than one‐half of the adult population is overweight (BMI of 25 to 29.9) or obese (BMI of ≥30). The prevalence of high blood pressure and mean levels of systolic and diastolic blood pressure increased as BMI increased at ages younger than 60 years. The prevalence of high blood cholesterol and mean levels of cholesterol were higher at BMI levels over 25 rather than below 25 but did not increase consistently with increasing BMI above 25. Rates of low HDL‐C increased and mean levels of HDL‐C decreased as levels of BMI increased. The associations of BMI with high blood pressure and abnormal lipids were statistically significant after controlling for age, race or ethnicity, education, and smoking; odds ratios were highest at ages 20 to 39 but most trends were apparent at older ages. Within BMI categories, hypertension was more prevalent and HDL‐C levels were higher in black than white or Mexican American men and women. Discussion: These data quantify the strong associations of BMI with hypertension and abnormal lipids. They are consistent with the national emphasis on prevention and control of overweight and obesity and indicate that blood pressure and cholesterol measurement and control are especially important for overweight and obese people.     

Race and gender differences in the association of dieting and gains in BMI among young adults

Objective: To assess the relationship between dieting and subsequent weight change and whether the association varies by gender or race/ethnicity. Research Methods and Procedures: Male (n = 4100) and female (n = 4302) participants in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health who provided information on weight and height at baseline and two follow‐up assessments and were not missing information on weight control strategies or race were studied. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess whether dieting to lose or maintain weight at Wave I or II predicted BMI (kg/m²) change between adolescence and young adulthood (Wave II to III). Analyses were stratified by gender and took sampling weights and clustering into account. Results: At Wave I, the mean age of the participants was 14.9 years. Approximately 29.3% of female participants and 9.8% of male participants reported dieting in Wave I or II. Fewer African Americans than whites (6.2% vs. 10.0% and 25.5% vs. 31.2%, p = 0.007 and p = 0.02, among males and females, respectively) reported dieting. Between Waves II and III, participants gained on average 3.3 kg/m². Independent of BMI gain during adolescence (Waves I to II), female participants who dieted to lose or maintain weight during adolescence made larger gains in BMI during the 5 years between Waves II and III (mean additional gain, 0.39 kg/m²; 95% confidence interval, 0.08 to 0.71) than their nondieting peers. The association was not significant among the male participants. The association was largest among African‐American female participants. Discussion: The results suggest that not only is dieting to lose weight ineffective, it is actually associated with greater weight gain, particularly among female adolescents. Female African‐American dieters made the largest BMI gains.     

The Role of Adolescent Behaviors in the Female–Male Disparity in Obesity Incidence in US Black and White Young Adults

In the United States, black women are at much greater risk for obesity than black men. We explored whether adolescent behaviors (family dinners, hours of television, playing sports with mother, playing sports with father, bouts of physical activity) were associated with gender disparity in 6‐year obesity incidence in young adulthood. We used data from the nationally representative National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine adolescent behaviors in nonimmigrant black (n = 1,503) and white (n = 4,452) youths in 1994–95 (aged 11–19 years) and 1995–96 (aged 12–20). We assessed gender disparity in obesity incidence (female incidence minus male incidence) during young adulthood (2001–02; aged 18–26). Standardized gender disparities were calculated using race‐ and gender‐stratified, covariate‐adjusted logistic regression models in which males and females were set to the same distributions of adolescent behaviors. In adolescence, black females reported less leisure‐time physical activity and lower likelihood of playing sports with either parent compared with black males. Setting adolescent behaviors equal for black males and females did not reduce the estimated gender disparity in obesity incidence (nonstandardized: 9.8 percentage points (95% confidence interval (CI): 4.5, 15.1); fully standardized: 10.2 percentage points (5.2, 15.2)). There was little gender disparity in whites before or after adjustments. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine to what extent behavioral differences during adolescence might account for gender disparity in obesity incidence in black young adults. Male‐female differences in these adolescent behaviors did not appear to underlie the gender gap in young adult obesity.     

Overweight in Childhood,Adolescence and Adulthood and Cardiovascular Risk in Later Life: Pooled Analysis of Three British Birth Cohorts

Background

Overweight and obesity in adulthood are established risk factors for adverse cardiovascular outcomes, but the contribution of overweight in childhood to later cardiovascular risk is less clear. Evidence for a direct effect of childhood overweight would highlight early life as an important target for cardiovascular disease prevention. The aim of this study was to assess whether overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescence contribute to excess cardiovascular risk in adults.

Methods and findings

Data from three British birth cohorts, born in 1946, 1958 and 1970, were pooled for analysis (n = 11,447). Individuals were categorised, based on body mass index (BMI), as being of normal weight or overweight/obese in childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Eight patterns of overweight were defined according to weight status at these three stages. Logistic regression models were fitted to assess the associations of patterns of overweight with self-reported type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and coronary heart disease (CHD) in adulthood (34–53 years). Compared to cohort members who were never overweight, those who were obese in adulthood had increased risk of all outcomes. For type 2 diabetes, the odds ratio was higher for obese adults who were also overweight or obese in childhood and adolescence (OR 12.6; 95% CI 6.6 to 24.0) than for those who were obese in adulthood only (OR 5.5; 95% CI 3.4 to 8.8). There was no such effect of child or adolescent overweight on hypertension. For CHD, there was weak evidence of increased risk among those with overweight in childhood. The main limitations of this study concern the use of self-reported outcomes and the generalisability of findings to contemporary child populations.

Conclusions

Type 2 diabetes and to a lesser extent CHD risk may be affected by overweight at all stages of life, while hypertension risk is associated more strongly with weight status in adulthood.     

Health perceptions and demographic characteristics associated with underassessment of body weight

Objectives: To describe the relationship between BMI and perceived weight status and to determine how underassessment of weight status is associated with demographic characteristics, self‐reported general health, and perceived health risk in relation to one's body weight. Methods and Procedures: In the 2004 Styles surveys, 3,888 US adult participants described their current weight status (underweight, about right, slightly overweight, very overweight), which we compared with self‐reported BMI in order to determine concordance. We used multivariable logistic regression to evaluate associations between underassessment of body weight and characteristics of interest. Results: Among persons with a BMI ≥25, women were more likely than men to recognize their overweight status (slightly or very overweight; 93.0% of women vs. 73.5% of men) and the extent to which they were overweight: 70.4% of obese women vs. 49.5% of obese men described themselves as very overweight. Among the overweight and obese of both sexes, disagreement with regard to current weight as a health risk was associated with underassessment of weight. Additional factors associated with underassessment were education and race/ethnicity among overweight women; race/ethnicity among overweight men; household income and self‐rated health among obese women; and self‐rated health among obese men (P < 0.05). Discussion: While most of the obese participants recognized that they were overweight, many of them, particularly among the men, did not realize the extent to which they were overweight. Public health messages may be more effective if they are specifically tailored to target audiences, besides emphasizing the health risks associated with excess body weight.     

Physical inactivity and obesity: a vicious circle

Objective: Physical activity (PA) begins to decline in adolescence with a concomitant increase in weight. We hypothesized that a vicious circle may arise between decreasing PA and weight gain from adolescence to early adulthood. Methods and Procedures: PA and self‐perceived physical fitness assessed in adolescents (16–18 years of age) were used to predict the development of obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m²) and abdominal obesity (waist ≥88 cm in females and ≥102 cm in males) at age 25 in 4,240 twin individuals (90% of twins born in Finland, 1975–1979). Ten 25‐year‐old monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs who were discordant for obesity (with a 16 kg weight difference) were then carefully evaluated for current PA (using a triaxial accelerometer), total energy expenditure (TEE, assessed by means of the doubly labeled water (DLW) method), and basal metabolic rate (BMR, assessed by indirect calorimetry). Results: Physical inactivity in adolescence strongly predicted the risk for obesity (odds ratio (OR) 3.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.4–10.9) and abdominal obesity (4.8, 1.9–12.0) at age 25, even after adjusting for baseline and current BMI. Poor physical fitness in adolescence also increased the risk for overall obesity (5.1, 2.0–12.7) and abdominal obesity (3.2, 1.5–6.7) in adulthood. Physical inactivity was both causative and secondary to the development of obesity discordance in the MZ pairs. TEE did not differ between the MZ co‐twins. PA was lower whereas BMR was higher in the obese co‐twins. Discussion: Physical inactivity in adolescence strongly and independently predicts total (and especially) abdominal obesity in young adulthood, favoring the development of a self‐perpetuating vicious circle of obesity and physical inactivity. Physical activity should therefore be seriously recommended for obesity prevention in the young.     

Television Viewing Is Not Predictive of BMI in Black and Hispanic Young Adult Females

Previous studies have observed that television (TV) viewing is predictive of obesity and weight gain. We examined whether the cross‐sectional association between TV viewing and BMI varied by racial/ethnic subgroups among young women in Wave III (collected in 2001–2002) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. We used multivariate linear regression to examine the relationship between TV viewing and BMI among 6,049 females while controlling for sociodemographic and health attributes. We stratified the sample by race/ethnicity to better understand the association between TV viewing and BMI across different groups. Black and Hispanic females had higher BMIs (black: 28.5 kg/m², Hispanic: 27.3 kg/m², white: 26.0 kg/m²) than white females, while black females reported higher numbers of hours spent watching TV (black: 14.7 h/week, Hispanic: 10.6 h/week, white: 11.2 h/week) when compared to their white and Hispanic peers. TV viewing was positively associated with BMI (β = 0.79, P = 0.003 for 8–14 vs. ≤7 h/week; β = 1.18, P = 0.01 for >14 vs. ≤7 h/week) independent of race/ethnicity, age, maternal education, history of pregnancy, parental obesity, and household income. However, in models stratified by race/ethnicity, increased TV viewing was associated with increased BMI only among white females; TV viewing was not predictive of higher BMI in black or Hispanic young adult females. Among black and Hispanic females, counseling to decrease TV viewing may be important but insufficient for promoting weight loss.     

Examining associations between civic engagement and depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood in a national U.S. sample

Many scholars posit that engaging in civic actions enhances mental health, yet existing evidence is limited. To address gaps in the literature and advance understanding of benefits of civic engagement from adolescence to young adulthood, we estimated a longitudinal structural model to test bidirectional associations between civic engagement (i.e., voting, community engagement, political behaviors) and depressive symptoms using nationally representative longitudinal U.S. data. Adolescent and early young adulthood (EYA) depressive symptoms predicted decreases in later voting. Adolescent and EYA community engagement predicted decreases in later depressive symptoms. Analyses suggested that findings generalized across gender, age, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and EYA social roles. Despite key limitations in measurement of civic engagement over time, results provide some support the notion that community engagement may have mental health benefits for youth, and that depression may reduce later civic engagement.     

The association between childhood obesity and tooth eruption

Obesity is a growth-promoting process as evidenced by its effect on the timing of puberty. Although studies are limited, obesity has been shown to affect the timing of tooth eruption. Both the timing and sequence of tooth eruption are important to overall oral health. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between obesity and tooth eruption. Data were combined from three consecutive cycles (2001-2006) of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and analyzed to examine associations between the number of teeth erupted (NET) and obesity status (BMI z-score >95th percentile BMI relative to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth reference) among children 5 up to 14 years of age, controlling for potential confounding by age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status (SES). Obesity is significantly associated with having a higher average NET during the mixed dentition period. On average, teeth of obese children erupted earlier than nonobese children with obese children having on average 1.44 more teeth erupted than nonobese children, after adjusting for age, gender, and race/ethnicity (P < 0.0001). SES was not a confounder of the observed associations. Obese children, on average, have significantly more teeth erupted than nonobese children after adjusting for gender, age, and race. These findings may have clinical importance in the area of dental and orthodontic medicine both in terms of risk for dental caries due to extended length of time exposed in the oral cavity and sequencing which may increase the likelihood of malocclusions.     

Adolescent expectations of early death predict adult risk behaviors

Only a handful of public health studies have investigated expectations of early death among adolescents. Associations have been found between these expectations and risk behaviors in adolescence. However, these beliefs may not only predict worse adolescent outcomes, but worse trajectories in health with ties to negative outcomes that endure into young adulthood. The objectives of this study were to investigate perceived chances of living to age 35 (Perceived Survival Expectations, PSE) as a predictor of suicidal ideation, suicide attempt and substance use in young adulthood. We examined the predictive capacity of PSE on future suicidal ideation/attempt after accounting for sociodemographics, depressive symptoms, and history of suicide among family and friends to more fully assess its unique contribution to suicide risk. We investigated the influence of PSE on legal and illegal substance use and varying levels of substance use. We utilized the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) initiated in 1994-95 among 20,745 adolescents in grades 7-12 with follow-up interviews in 1996 (Wave II), 2001-02 (Wave III) and 2008 (Wave IV; ages 24-32). Compared to those who were almost certain of living to age 35, perceiving a 50-50 or less chance of living to age 35 at Waves I or III predicted suicide attempt and ideation as well as regular substance use (i.e., exceeding daily limits for moderate drinking; smoking ≥ a pack/day; and using illicit substances other than marijuana at least weekly) at Wave IV. Associations between PSE and detrimental adult outcomes were particularly strong for those reporting persistently low PSE at both Waves I and III. Low PSE at Wave I or Wave III was also related to a doubling and tripling, respectively, of death rates in young adulthood. Long-term and wide-ranging ties between PSE and detrimental outcomes suggest these expectations may contribute to identifying at-risk youth.     

Obesity among People with and without Mental Retardation across Adulthood

Objective: This study was designed to explore obesity during adulthood and the likelihood of moving out of obesity among 1809 adults without disability and 680 adults with mental retardation who received care at the same primary care practices during the period of 1990 to 2003. Research Method and Procedures: A retrospective observational design using medical records first identified patients with mental retardation (MR) and age‐matched controls without disabilities. Data on BMI collected during each primary care visit allowed exploration of obesity at three levels. Moving out of obesity was defined as having a BMI <25 kg/m². We also abstracted data on age, sex, race, and other medical conditions. Results: For adults 20 to 29 years of age, 33.1% of patients without disability and 21% of patients with MR had a BMI >30 kg/m². Between the ages of 50 and 59 years, 40.5% of the patients without disability and 35.2% of the patients with MR had a BMI >30 kg/m². Patients with mild MR had similar prevalence rates of obesity and patients with severe MR had significantly lower prevalence of obesity compared with the patients without disability through 50 years of age. Throughout the period from 20 to 60 years of age, between 15% and 40% of individuals with and without MR, who were previously obese, were not currently obese. Discussion: Throughout the adult years, an increasing proportion of individuals with and without MR are obese. However, obesity is not a chronic state; many people transition back to a normal body weight.     

Maternal obesity is associated with younger age at obesity onset in U.S. adolescent offspring followed into adulthood

Objective: The objective was to test the hypothesis that maternal obesity is associated with younger age of offspring's obesity onset. Research Methods and Procedures: We used prospective, nationally representative, longitudinal data collected across Waves I (1995; 12 to 20 years), II (1996; 13 to 20 years), and III (2001; 18 to 28 years) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 14,654; 49% female). Interval regression analysis was used to assess the association between maternal obesity and age at offspring's obesity onset (International Obesity Task Force BMI ≥30 equivalent age‐ and sex‐specific cut‐off points for adolescents and BMI ≥30 for young adults) using self‐reported heights and weights, adjusting for race/ethnicity, sex, parental education, and family income, accounting for complex sampling design. Results: The net effect of having an obese mother varied by race/ethnicity and was associated with a significantly earlier age at obesity onset (p = 0.0001) for whites [β= ?8.1 year, 95% confidence interval (CI), ?9.3; ?6.9)], blacks (β = ?10.8 years, 95% CI, ?12.4; ?9.2), Hispanics (β = ?7.0 years, 95% CI, ?9.2; ?4.8), and Asians (β = ?8.6 years, 95% CI, ?13.3; ?3.9). Earlier obesity onset (<18 years) was associated with increased severity at young adulthood (mean BMI, 36.0 ± 0.3 kg/m²) vs. onset after age 18 (mean BMI, 34.4 ± 0.2 kg/m²; p = 0.0001). There were no sex differences in the association of maternal obesity to age at obesity onset. Conclusions: Having an obese mother was associated with earlier age at obesity onset across all race/ethnic groups, particularly non‐Hispanic blacks. Early obesity onset has important health consequences because of its association with more severe adult obesity.     

Utility of Childhood BMI in the Prediction of Adulthood Disease: Comparison of National and International References

Objective: To determine whether the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC; CDC Reference) or International Obesity Task Force (IOTF; IOTF Reference) BMI cut‐off points for classifying adiposity status in children are more effective at predicting future health risk. Research Methods and Procedures: The sample (N = 1709) included 4‐ to 15‐year‐old (at baseline) boys and girls from the Bogalusa Heart Study. Overweight and obesity status were determined using both the CDC Reference and IOTF Reference BMI cut‐off points at baseline. The ability of childhood overweight and obesity, determined from the two BMI classification systems, to predict obesity and metabolic disorders in young adulthood (after a 13‐ to 24‐year follow‐up) was then compared. Results: Independently of the classification system employed to determine adiposity based on childhood BMI, the odds of being obese and having all of the metabolic disorders in young adulthood were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the overweight and obese groups by comparison with the nonoverweight groups. Childhood overweight and obesity, determined by both the CDC Reference and IOTF Reference, had a low sensitivity and a high specificity for predicting obesity and metabolic disorders in young adulthood. Overweight and obesity as determined by the CDC Reference were slightly more sensitive and slightly less specific than the corresponding values based on the IOTF Reference. Discussion: Overweight and obesity during childhood, as determined by both the CDC and IOTF BMI cut‐off points, are strong predictors of obesity and coronary heart disease risk factors in young adulthood. The differences in the predictive capacity of the CDC Reference and IOTF Reference are, however, minimal.     

Childhood Behavioral Problems Predict Young Adults' BMI and Obesity: Evidence From a Birth Cohort Stud

We examined whether behavioral problems in childhood and adolescence are associated with young adults' BMI and obesity, and tested whether childhood behavioral problems have a greater impact on young adults' obesity than adolescent behavioral problems. The data were from the Mater‐University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) and Its Outcomes, a population‐based birth cohort study commenced in Brisbane, Australia, in 1981. A subsample of 2,278 children for whom we had prospective information on their behavioral problems at ages 5 and 14 and measured BMI, and its categories (normal, overweight, and obese) at age 21 was chosen. Young adults who experienced behavioral problems at ages 5 or 14 had a greater average BMI and were more likely to be obese compared to young adults without behavioral problems at both ages. The childhood onset group was at greater risk of becoming obese by age 21 compared to the adolescent onset group (P = 0.04). These associations remained consistent after adjusting for a variety of potential covariates including maternal characteristics (i.e., demographics and life style), child dietary patterns, family meals, television (TV) watching, and participation in sports and exercise at 14 years. Childhood as well as persistent behavioral problems during childhood and adolescence predicts young adults' BMI and obesity. Although further studies are needed to confirm this association, there is a need for close monitoring of children presenting with behavioral problems.     

Obesity among male adolescent migrants in Vienna, Austria

Childhood overweight and obesity--especially among migrant children--are health problems in several European countries. The prevalence rates of overweight and obesity among 936 migrant boys of low socio-economic status from Turkey and former Yugoslavia were compared with those of Austrian boys in Vienna. In the longitudinal study, children were measured at the ages of 6, 10 and 15 years. Weight status was estimated by means of the body mass index and percentile curves were used for weight status classification. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was high among migrant boys as well as Austrian boys at all age groups. Ten-year-old boys from Yugoslavia exhibited the highest percentage of overweight (nearly 38%). The lowest percentage of overweight was among 6-year-old Austrian boys (17.2%). Being overweight or obese at the age of 6 years increased the risk of being overweight at 10 and 15 years significantly (p<0.001). This was true of all groups independent of migrant status. The impact of migrant status on weight status at the ages of 10 and 15 was not significant. Therefore, although migrant boys from former Yugoslavia exhibited the highest rates of overweight and obesity, migrant status is not associated significantly with an increased prevalence of obesity in this sample characterized by a generally low socio-economic status. Prevention should start as early as possible for all children, since overweight tends to persist from childhood into adolescence independent of migrant status.     

Progenitor cells and TNF-alpha involvement during morphological changes in pancreatic islets of obese mice

Overnutrition during pregnancy and lactation lend increasing support to the development of obesity and several chronic diseases in adulthood such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, which leads to beta-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. In this work, we aimed to study the effects of early life overnutrition on the development of obesity, analyzing the morphological changes, expression of TNF-α, and also the stem cell marker CD133 in the pancreatic islets of young and adult mice. Overnutrition during lactation phase was used as an experimental model to induce obesity. The animals were analyzed at 28 and 150 days of age, when pancreata were collected for histological, ultrastructural and western blotting analysis. The results showed that islet hypertrophy is established in obese groups at day 28 and remained until adulthood. CD133⁺ cells were observed as small cells within pancreatic islets in both control and obese young mice. However, at day 150, these cells were observed only in the islet peripheries and near ducts of the obese group. Furthermore, TNF-α expression in pancreatic islets was increased in both young and adult obese groups when compared to control groups. This work shows interesting data about CD133 receptor and TNF-α roles in the pancreas during obesity development.     

Adiposity in Childhood Is Related to C‐Reactive Protein and Adiponectin in Young Adulthood: From the Bogalusa Heart Study

To determine the association between cardiovascular (CV) risk factors in childhood and high‐sensitivity C‐reactive protein (hsCRP) and adiponectin in adulthood, 835 eligible white and African‐American young adult subjects (age range 24–42 years, average 34 years, 43% men, 31% African Americans) who had CV risk‐factor variable data from their childhood (20 years earlier, age range 5–18 years, average 14 years) were selected. Stepwise linear regression models revealed that mean logarithmic hsCRP level in adulthood was 0.02 greater with every increase of 1 mm in skinfold thickness in childhood, 0.25 greater for African Americans than whites, 0.36 greater for girls than boys, and 0.15 greater for every unit increase in BMI z score. Mean logarithmic adiponectin level in adulthood was 0.36 greater for girls than boys, 0.22 greater for whites than African Americans, and 0.01 less with every increase of 1 mm of childhood skinfold thickness. Seventy participants (8%) were overweight or obese in their childhood, and 64 of these (91%) remained obese in their young adulthood. In conclusion, childhood adiposity and African‐American race were associated with higher hsCRP and lower adiponectin levels in their adulthood. Skinfold thickness and BMI z score in childhood were the main obesity determinants for higher hsCRP and lower adiponectin levels in young adulthood.