Preliminary studies on the etiology of keratoconjunctivitis in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) calves in Alaska

Keratoconjunctivitis outbreaks occur each summer in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) herds in western Alaska, USA. This condition has not been well characterized nor has a definitive primary etiologic agent been identified. We evaluated the eyes of 660 calves near Nome, Alaska, between 29 June and 14 July 2005. Clinical signs of keratoconjunctivitis were observed in 26/660 calves (3.9%). Samples were collected from the conjunctival sac of both affected (n=22) and unaffected (n=24) animals for bacterial culture, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing for Chlamydophila psittaci, and for polymerase chain reaction assays for Mycoplasma and Moraxella spp. No primary bacterial or viral etiologic agent(s) were isolated or identified. The cause of keratoconjunctivitis among reindeer calves was not determined, but it could involve an anaerobic bacteria, a difficult-to-isolate viral agent, stress associated with repeated handling, ocular foreign bodies, exposure to corral dust or arthropods, or a combination.     

The diversity of Listeria monocytogenes strains from 10 Icelandic sheep farms

AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine the diversity of Listeria monocytogenes strains from healthy sheep, winter feed and environment of sheep farms in Iceland. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 104 L. monocytogenes isolates from animals, winter feed and environment on 10 Icelandic sheep farms were compared by serotyping, ribotyping, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis with ApaI and AscI. The isolates were divided into 24 genotypes, all identified as serovars 1/2a, 1/2b, or 4b. Nine genotypes were detected on more than one farm. On three of the farms there seemed to be a dominant strain of L. monocytogenes. Isolates from incidents of listeriosis in animals occurring on two of the farms belonged to the genotype most commonly found on the particular farm. Nine of the 24 genotypes found on the sheep farms have been associated with disease in animals and/or humans elsewhere in Iceland. CONCLUSIONS: Certain strains of L. monocytogenes seem to be widely distributed on Icelandic sheep farms. On some farms there appears to be a dominant strain of L. monocytogenes. Incidents of listeriosis in animals may tend to be associated with strains commonly found on the farm. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study demonstrates the diversity of L. monocytogenes present in healthy sheep and their environment.     

Iron and iron/manganese ratio in forage from Icelandic sheep farms: relation to scrapie

This study was undertaken in order to examine whether any connection existed between the amounts of iron in forage and the sporadic occurrence of scrapie observed in certain parts of Iceland. As iron and manganese are considered antagonistic in plants, calculation of the Fe/Mn ratios was also included by using results from Mn determination earlier performed in the same samples. Forage samples (n = 170) from the summer harvests of 2001–2003, were collected from 47 farms for iron and manganese analysis. The farms were divided into four categories: 1. Scrapie-free farms in scrapie-free areas (n = 9); 2. Scrapie-free farms in scrapie-afflicted areas (n = 17); 3. Scrapie-prone farms (earlier scrapie-afflicted, restocked farms) (n = 12); 4. Scrapie-afflicted farms (n = 9). Farms in categories 1 and 2 are collectively referred to as scrapie-free farms. The mean iron concentration in forage samples from scrapie-afflicted farms was significantly higher than in forage samples from farms in the other scrapie categories (P = 0.001). The mean Fe/Mn ratio in forage from scrapie-afflicted farms was significantly higher than in forage from scrapie-free and scrapie-prone farms (P < 0.001). The results indicated relative dominance of iron over manganese in forage from scrapie-afflicted farms as compared to farms in the other categories. Thus thorough knowledge of iron, along with manganese, in soil and vegetation on sheep farms could be a pivot in studies on sporadic scrapie.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic sheep in Durango State, Mexico

The seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep (Ovis aries) in northern Mexico is largely unknown. Antibodies to T. gondii were determined in serum samples from 511 sheep from 8 farms in Durango State, Mexico, using the modified agglutination test (MAT). Sheep were raised in 3 geographical regions, i.e., mountainous (n = 68), semi-desert (n = 132), and valley (n = 311). Overall, T. gondii antibodies were found in 77 (15.1%) of 511 sheep, with MAT titers of 1∶25 in 27, 1∶50 in 10, 1∶100 in 11, 1∶200 in 11, 1∶400 in 8, 1∶800 in 3, 1∶1,600 in 4, and 1∶3,200 in 3. The seroprevalence of T. gondii infection increased significantly with age, indicating post-natal transmission. In contrast, gender, breed, flock size, and geographic region did not significantly influence the seroprevalence. Seropositive sheep were found in 7 of 8 farms sampled. This is the first report of T. gondii infection in sheep in Durango State, Mexico. Results indicate that infected sheep are probably an important source of T. gondii infection for humans in Durango State.     

Survival of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) commingled with domestic sheep (Ovis aries) in the absence of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae

To test the hypothesis that Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae is an important agent of the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) pneumonia that has previously inevitably followed experimental commingling with domestic sheep (Ovis aries), we commingled M. ovipneumoniae-free domestic and bighorn sheep (n=4 each). One bighorn sheep died with acute pneumonia 90 days after commingling, but the other three remained healthy for >100 days. This unprecedented survival rate is significantly different (P=0.002) from that of previous bighorn-domestic sheep contact studies but similar to (P>0.05) bighorn sheep survival following commingling with other ungulates. The absence of epizootic respiratory disease in this experiment supports the hypothesized role of M. ovipneumoniae as a key pathogen of epizootic pneumonia in bighorn sheep commingled with domestic sheep.     

Salmonella in Sheep in Iceland

In 1995 several outbreaks of food poisoning in humans occurred in Iceland, that were traced to salmonella contamination of singed sheep heads. This prompted us to study the prevalence of salmonella infection in sheep and to trace where and how infection might have occurred. Faecal, intestinal contents and tonsillar samples were collected in the spring and autumn from sheep on 50 farms in the southwestern part of the country, where salmonellosis had been detected and from 5 farms in the northwestern part of the country. All faecal samples from the southwest were negative, whereas samples from 3 farms obtained in the autumn in the northwest were positive. Tonsillae taken in the autumn were positive in sheep from 3 farms in the southwest and 2 in the northwest. Our results show that salmonella infection is rare in Icelandic sheep but healthy carriers may harbour the bacteria in tonsillae. Salmonella was not detected in drainage from slaughterhouses nor in singed sheep heads.     

Validating indicators of sheep welfare through a consensus of expert opinion

A consensus of expert opinion was used to provide both face and consensual validity to a list of potential indicators of sheep welfare. This approach was used as a first step in the identification of valid welfare indicators for sheep. The consensus methodology of the National Institute of Health, using pre-meeting consultation and focus group discussions, was used to ascertain the consensus opinion of a panel of sheep welfare experts. The Farm Animal Welfare Council's five freedoms were used as a framework to organise a list of current on-farm welfare issues for sheep. The five freedoms were also the welfare criterion used to identify potential on-farm welfare indicators for sheep. As a result, experts identified 193 welfare issues for sheep and lambs managed on farms across England and Wales. Subsequently, a combination of animal- (n = 26), resource- (n = 13) and management- (n = 22) based indicators was suggested for (i) adult rams, (ii) adult ewes (male and female sheep, over 1 year old), (iii) growing lambs (male and female sheep, over 6 weeks to 1 year old) and (iv) young lambs (male and female lambs, 6 weeks old and under). The results from this study could therefore be used to inform the further development of valid methods of assessing the on-farm welfare of sheep.     

Mycoplasma conjunctivae infection is not maintained in alpine chamois in eastern Switzerland

The occurrence of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) was assessed in alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra) in Grisons (Switzerland) from 1950 to 1999. The first IKC outbreaks were reported in the 1950's. Since then, the number of affected subpopulations constantly increased and, by 1999, IKC outbreaks were reported in 39 of 51 (77%) chamois sub-populations. From 1992-99, a total of 243 chamois which died of the consequences of IKC were recorded. The number of cases differed between years, and a distinct seasonal trend was observed. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis was more common during summer and autumn, with 48% of the cases recorded in August-October. Juveniles (< 4 yr of age) were mostly represented. To verify the presence of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in chamois we analyzed conjunctival swabs taken from animals affected with IKC. Among a sample of 28 affected chamois, M. conjunctivae was identified 14 times (50%). An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to detect specific M. conjunctivae antibodies in sera of alpine chamois with IKC. We performed a serologic investigation to assess whether M. conjunctivae infection is self-maintained in the chamois population in Grisons. In subpopulations with IKC oubreaks, seroprevalence was low (8%). Seroprevalence was even lower in subpopulations with recent IKC outbreaks (3%). We concluded that the M. conjunctivae infection is not self-maintained in alpine chamois in Grisons. The agent may originate in domestic sheep living in proximity to chamois during summer. Control of IKC in chamois should consider immunoprophylaxis in sheep or limiting interspecific transmission of M. conjunctivae.     

Immune responses to Mycoplasma conjunctivae in alpine ibex, alpine chamois, and domestic sheep in Switzerland

The humoral immune response of three alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra), two alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) and three domestic sheep naturally affected with infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), and four ibex and two sheep experimentally infected with Mycoplasma conjunctivae was analysed. In addition, the local immune response to M. conjunctivae was analysed using conjunctival washes from chamois and sheep. Immunoblot analysis of sera using whole cell antigens of M. conjunctivae revealed the major immunogenic proteins which had molecular masses of 175, 83, 68, 60, 50, 42, 36, and 33 kDa. Major antigens were found at 83, 68, 60, and 42 kDa in both sera and conjunctival washes from naturally infected animals of all three Caprinae species. In experimentally infected animals, antibodies to the 68 and 60 kDa antigens were dominant. Naturally infected animals showed much stronger immune reactions than those experimentally infected, and specific antibodies appeared 2 to 4 wk after experimental infection. To evaluate possible cross-reactions, whole cell antigen of M. conjunctivae was analysed by immunoblot against hyperimmune sera of closely related Mycoplasma spp. Antibodies to the 175, 73, 68, 60, and 33 kDa antigens appeared to be specific to M. conjunctivae. Cross-reactions mainly with 83, 50, and 42 kDa antigens were detected, in particular with M. ovipneumoniae and M. bovoculi hyperimmune sera, but also with antisera against M. capricolum capricolum and M. putrefaciens.     

Ecology and transmission of Listeria monocytogenes infecting ruminants and in the farm environment

A case-control study involving 24 case farms with at least one recent case of listeriosis and 28 matched control farms with no listeriosis cases was conducted to probe the transmission and ecology of Listeria monocytogenes on farms. A total of 528 fecal, 516 feed, and 1,012 environmental soil and water samples were cultured for L. monocytogenes. While the overall prevalence of L. monocytogenes in cattle case farms (24.4%) was similar to that in control farms (20.2%), small-ruminant (goat and sheep) farms showed a significantly (P < 0.0001) higher prevalence in case farms (32.9%) than in control farms (5.9%). EcoRI ribotyping of clinical (n = 17) and farm (n = 414) isolates differentiated 51 ribotypes. L. monocytogenes ribotypes isolated from clinical cases and fecal samples were more frequent in environmental than in feed samples, indicating that infected animals may contribute to L. monocytogenes dispersal into the farm environment. Ribotype DUP-1038B was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with fecal samples compared with farm environment and animal feedstuff samples. Ribotype DUP-1045A was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with soil compared to feces and with control farms compared to case farms. Our data indicate that (i) the epidemiology and transmission of L. monocytogenes differ between small-ruminant and cattle farms; (ii) cattle contribute to amplification and dispersal of L. monocytogenes into the farm environment, (iii) the bovine farm ecosystem maintains a high prevalence of L. monocytogenes, including subtypes linked to human listeriosis cases and outbreaks, and (iv) L. monocytogenes subtypes may differ in their abilities to infect animals and to survive in farm environments.     

Population Dynamics and Behavior of Bighorn Sheep with Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis

ABSTRACT Introduced disease is a major mortality factor in some populations of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Epizootics of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) and contagious ecthyma occurred in bighorn sheep in the Silver Bell Mountains of south-central Arizona, USA, from 1 December 2003 to 31 March 2004. Our objectives were to 1) investigate the influence of the epizootic on abundance and demographics and 2) examine how IKC affected the mortality, behavior, and movements of clinically affected animals. Morbidity was 39%, and all sex and age classes were affected. The population declined 23%, with most mortality in the adult female (1 M, 11 F) segment of the population. Of the diseased animals that were marked (n = 27), 44% recovered and 44% died. Predation (50%) and starvation (33%) were the primary causes of mortality of diseased bighorn sheep. Bighorn sheep that were infected spent less time feeding and moved less than noninfected animals during the epizootic. Managers might be able to minimize losses of infected animals through predator control. To minimize losses to starvation, managers should refrain from any activity that disturbs infected animals (including treatment) because disturbances increase energy expenditures and expose infected animals to injury.     

Aspects of the epidemiology of Chlamydia psittaci infection in a population of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in southeastern Queensland, Australia

A population of free-ranging koalas in southeastern Queensland was examined to determine the prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci infections. Although C. psittaci was isolated from 46 of 65 (71%) koalas studied, only six (9%) of these had clinical signs of disease. Most adult females (82%) had back or pouch young present even though 67% of them were infected. There were no significant correlations between age, sex or site of sampling (urogenital versus conjunctival tissues) and the isolation of C. psittaci. No other important bacterial or fungal pathogens were isolated. The complement fixation test had a sensitivity of 7% and a specificity of 94% in detecting chlamydial infections, suggesting that it is unsuitable for use as a screening test. Chlamydia psittaci infection within this population appeared to represent a generally well-balanced host-parasite relationship and few animals had clinical signs of disease. Only four of 27 (15%) healthy koalas infected with C. psittaci followed for 24 wk after sampling developed eye disease or "dirty tail." Two koalas with keratoconjunctivitis recovered without treatment during the study period. Additional factors, including the stresses imposed by loss of habitat, may act to produce overt disease in koalas with latent C. psittaci infections.     

Water footprinting of pasture-based farms; beef and sheep

In the context of water use for agricultural production, water footprints (WFs) have become an important sustainability indicator. To understand better the water demand for beef and sheep meat produced on pasture-based systems, a WF of individual farms is required. The main objective of this study was to determine the primary contributors to freshwater consumption up to the farm gate expressed as a volumetric WF and associated impacts for the production of 1 kg of beef and 1 kg of sheep meat from a selection of pasture-based farms for 2 consecutive years, 2014 and 2015. The WF included green water, from the consumption of soil moisture due to evapotranspiration, and blue water, from the consumption of ground and surface waters. The impact of freshwater consumption on global water stress from the production of beef and sheep meat in Ireland was also computed. The average WF of the beef farms was 8391 l/kg carcass weight (CW) of which 8222 l/kg CW was green water and 169 l/kg CW was blue water; water for the production of pasture (including silage and grass) contributed 88% to the WF, concentrate production – 10% and on-farm water use – 1%. The average stress-weighted WF of beef was 91 l H₂O eq/kg CW, implying that each kg of beef produced in Ireland contributed to freshwater scarcity equivalent to the consumption of 91 l of freshwater by an average world citizen. The average WF of the sheep farms was 7672 l/kg CW of which 7635 l/kg CW was green water and 37 l/kg CW was blue water; water for the production of pasture contributed 87% to the WF, concentrate production – 12% and on-farm water use – 1%. The average stress-weighted WF was 2 l H₂O eq/kg CW for sheep. This study also evaluated the sustainability of recent intensification initiatives in Ireland and found that increases in productivity were supported through an increase in green water use and higher grass yields per hectare on both beef and sheep farms.     

Wolf Depredation on Domestic Animals in the Polish Carpathian Mountains

Abstract As wolves (Canis lupus) recover in Poland, their depredation on domestic animals is increasing, as have conflicts between wolves and farmers. From 1998 to 2004, I investigated spatial and temporal patterns of 591 verified incidents of wolf depredation in the eastern part of the Polish Carpathian Mountains. The wolf population I surveyed covered an estimated range of 4,993 km². Depredation occurred over 1,595 km² of that area. Sheep accounted for 84.8% of domestic animals killed by wolves. Depredation on sheep and number of sheep farms attacked by wolves increased between 1998 and 2004 (r² = 0.61, P = 0.04 and r² = 0.89, P = 0.02, respectively). The number of wolf attacks on sheep farms in a given year were negatively correlated to red deer (Cervus elaphus) population numbers (R² = 0.69, P = 0.02). The amount of depredation caused by each of the 4 monitored packs was best explained by farm density in their territories (R² = 0.59, P = 0.004). Number of attacks recorded on farms was positively correlated to distance from the farm to the pack's den and rendezvous sites (R² = 0.16, P = 0.04). Of depredation recorded in the 4 pack's territories I surveyed, 77% occurred in 4 farms with no or inadequate protection. I concluded that wolf depredation in the studied area is opportunistic. Wolf predation intensity is a function of decreasing abundance of red deer, the density of sheep farms, and proximity of farms to the summer activity centers of wolf packs, and it is facilitated by poor husbandry practices. These results can aid in preventing wolf depredation and provide a foundation for a wolf management plan.     

Chlamydial-caused infectious keratoconjunctivitis in bighorn sheep of Yellowstone National Park.

An epizootic of infectious keratoconjunctivitis occurred in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in Yellowstone National Park during the winter of 1981-82. The causative organism was identified as Chlamydia sp. Mortality related to the epizootic was approximately 60% of an estimated 500 bighorn sheep in the northern range population. The infection probably affected all sex and age classes, but field surveys of live animals and mortality suggested that mature rams died disproportionately. Limited field observations the following winter on individuals having both normal and cloudy-appearing eyes suggested that half of the bighorns then present on the core units of winter range had contracted the disease and survived. By 1988, there were about 300 bighorn sheep in the population.     

Insects feeding on desert bighorn sheep, domestic rabbits, and Japanese quail in the Santa Rosa mountains of southern California.

Desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis cremnobates), a domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) were used as bait animals to collect blood-feeding flies in an area of active blue-tongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus transmission. Precipitin tests were used to confirm the blood source where feasible. Eight species of Culicoides, members of the Leptoconops kerteszi group, Simulium spp., Anopheles franciscanus, and Stomoxys calcitrans were collected from the bighorn sheep. Feeding on the bighorn sheep by Culicoides brookmani (n = 25), C. variipennis (n = 6), C. cacticola (n = 1), and Simulium spp. (n = 3) was confirmed by precipitin testing. Primary species attacking the rabbit were C. brookmani, C. variipennis, and the L. kerteszi group. The quail were attacked primarily by members of the C. copiosus group and the L. kerteszi group.     

Dichelobacter nodosus, Fusobacterium necrophorum and the epidemiology of footrot

Footrot is a debilitating disease of sheep resulting in lameness, production losses and suffering. To study the basic bacteriology of the disease, a survey was initiated across commercial farms and non-commercial research flocks to compare the bacteriology of symptomatic footrot infected sheep with healthy asymptomatic sheep. Of the 80 farmers initially contacted, 14 collected hoof swabs and returned the swabs by post. Following DNA extraction, species-specific PCR was used to identify if Dichelobacter nodosus (D. nodosus) or Fusobacterium necrophorum (F. necrophorum) species were present on each swab. Of the 42 swabs taken from symptomatic footrot infected sheep, 17 were positive for both F. necrophorum and D. nodosus, two were positive for F. necrophorum only, two for D. nodosus only and 23 swabs were negative for both F. necrophorum and D. nod osus. Of the 50 swabs received from healthy asymptomatic sheep, one was positive for F. necrophorum only and 49 were negative for both D. nodosus and F. necrophorum. This suggests that both F. necrophorum and D. nodosus are linked to footrot in the field in a pastoral farming system. If these bacteria are linked together and collectively cause footrot, this may need to be considered when managing a footrot outbreak, or maintaining a quarantine.     

Carnivore-livestock conflicts: determinants of wolf (Canis lupus) depredation on sheep farms in Finland

Wolves (Canis lupus) have recently expanded their distribution range into western and southern Finland, which has not hosted breeding wolves for over 100 years. This has raised concerns and public debate over wolf-livestock conflicts. Between 1998 and 2004 there were 45 wolf attacks on sheep on 34 farms. To assess the risk wolves may pose to sheep husbandry, we used data on depredation, sheep management, landscape structure and moose and wolf populations from continental Finland outside the area of reindeer husbandry to build models of the factors that may predispose sheep farms to wolf depredation. Our results provided evidence that sheep farms with the highest risk of wolf depredation were those located in regions where wolves were abundant. These farms were usually located close to the Russian border where the landscape is a mosaic of forest, wetlands and clear cut areas. These regions are sparsely populated by humans and farms are located far from each other. Finally, we generated probability maps based on generalised additive modelling to predict the risk of wolf predation on livestock in farms of southern Finland.     

Adoption of a new feeding technology in Mediterranean sheep farming systems: Implications and economic evaluation

Innovation in feeding systems involves replacing conventional feeds with alternatives and, in many cases, the modification of distribution devices. The labour demand of feeding management is one of the basic limitations faced by meat sheep production in Spain and other Mediterranean countries. In the region of Aragón, a sheep farmers cooperative has designed a new feeding technology for self-service complete-diet feed (SSCDF) rations. The objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the effects of the adoption of the new SSCDF system and (ii) to assess its economic viability in farms that used traditional feeding systems. For the first objective, all of the farms (n = 23) that used this system for more than 3 years were assessed directly using a questionnaire. In addition, we analysed the information obtained from a sample of 79 meat sheep farms that did not use the SSCDF (all 102 farms were participating in a technical-economic data network of the cooperative aforementioned). In order to assess the economic implications of adopting SSCDF, a typology was established using multivariate analysis with structural indicators, feeding costs and reproductive variables. Finally, an economic study was carried out for each type considering four different scenarios. Almost all farmers that adopted the SSCDF system felt an improvement in their quality of life. However, the new technology was not advisable on all types of farms from the economic point of view. In general, the greatest economic profitability was obtained if the implementation of SSCDF reduced labour requirements and increased technical performance; however, if the SSCDF implied only a reduction of labour requirements, Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return were considerably lower for all types of farms and, in some cases, the investment was not justified. Our study showed that the adoption of the SSCDF led to positive changes in farm structure, particularly in terms of flock size, and could contribute to the social sustainability of sheep farms in the region. The economic interest of adopting this feeding system depended largely on the expected improvements of technical results and on the increment of feeding costs that SSCDF involved.     

In vitro culture of fibroblast-like cells from postmortem skin of Katahdin sheep stored at 4��C for different time intervals

Live animals have been produced recently from animal tissues preserved for decades at frozen temperatures with or without cryoprotectants. However, the tissues in these studies were cryopreserved within few hours of animal death to obtain culturable live cells as nuclear donors. How long the tissues can be left unfrozen after animal death, without losing the viability and potential to in vitro culture with comparable morphology and proliferative rate as the fresh tissues, is not completely understood. To understand this phenomenon, ear skin samples from individual sheep (n=3) were procured from slaughter plant and stored at 4 °C. After various intervals (2, 8, 24, 32, 48, and 56 h after slaughter), 2-3 mm(2) pieces (n=10) of skin samples were cultured for 12 d on two dishes (60 mm) for each sheep. Outgrowth of fibroblast-like cells was observed as early as day 4 of culture and was visible on dishes of all time points including 56 h by day 10. The number of outgrowing cells decreased with increasing time interval between animal slaughter and culture initiation. Secondary cultures were successfully established for all the time points. All cultures proliferated well and were apparently normal. Passage 2 cultures of 2 h and 56 h interval for one of the three sheep were compared for their growth pattern and proliferation rates. The population doubling time of 2 h and 56 h intervals was 33.12 and 34.8 h, respectively, and both the lines exhibited similar cell morphology and an "S"-shaped growth curve. These results suggest that skin tissues of sheep and perhaps other animal species with superior traits are effectively preserved at cellular level at least for 56 h at normal refrigerating conditions, without need of complicated cryopreservatives/cryotanks that are usually not available at small farms.