The effects of temperature on development of the large narcissus fly (Merodon equestris)

Eggs, larvae, pupae and adults of the large narcissus fly (Merodon equestris) were reared at a series of constant temperatures between 9–24°C. Egg development required from 37 days at 9°C to 7 days at 21.5°C. The low-temperature threshold for development was 6.7°C. Larvae reared at 1424°C were fully-grown after 18 weeks, but it took much longer for such insects to pupate, and adult flies emerged only after about 45 weeks of development. Large narcissus flies enter diapause during the larval stage and overwinter as fully-fed larvae, forming pupae in the following spring. Post-winter pupation and pupal development took from 169 days at 10°C to 36 days at 21.5°C. Of this, pupal development required from 91 days at 10°C to 19 days at 21.5°C. The low-temperature threshold for post-winter pupation and pupal development was 7.1°C, and for pupal development alone, 7.2°C. Females maintained at or below 19°C laid few eggs, whereas some females kept at or above 21.5°C laid more than 100 eggs (mean 69 ± 36). Approximately 50% of females maintained at or above 21.5°C laid less than 10 eggs during their lifetime. The mean egg-laying time was 6 to 9 days. Although temperatures at or below 19°C inhibited mating, once a female had mated, such temperatures did not prevent oviposition.     

Ontogenetic patterns of cold-hardiness and glycerol production in Sarcophaga crassipalpis

Developmental patterns of low-temperature tolerance and glycerol production were determined for larval, pupal and adult stages of the flesh fly Sarcophaga crassipalpis Macquart (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). Both diapause and non-diapause-destined flies were reared at relatively high temperatures, 20° or 25°C, prior to testing. Cold tolerance was greatest for diapause pupae aged 12–35 days after pupariation. Among non-diapause-destined flies, pupae exhibited a greater level of low temperature tolerance than larvae or adults. Although diapause pupae were more tolerant than non-diapause pupae maximal cold tolerance was not attained in either group until 10 days after pupariation. Non-diapause-destined feeding and wandering larvae had higher glycerol levels than larvae destined for diapause. During the first 6 weeks after pupariation glycerol titres increased steadily in diapause pupae. Rapid loss of glycerol is associated with the termination of pupal diapause.     

Studies on an overwintering population of the mushroom phorid Megaselia halterata (Diptera: Phoridae) parasitized by Howardula husseyi (Nematoda: Allantonematidae)

An overwintering population of the mushroom phorid fly Megaselia halterata parasitized by Howardula husseyi was studied in an attempt to explain the winter decline in incidence of parasitism that has been observed in flies from mushroom farms. Fly larvae from eggs hatching in November developed into pupae in December and flies emerged in May. No selective mortality of parasitized specimens of larvae, pupae, or flies was observed. Dead parasites were found in only 10% of parasitized flies. The incidence of parasitism in the emerging flies (50%) was five times that of their parental generation and although parasitism significantly delayed fly emergence the delay was only 2–3 days. There was no evidence of winter decline in parasitism; instead there was strong evidence that parasitism enhanced phorid survival through the winter.     

Effect of conditions in sealed plastic bags on eclosion of mass‐reared Queensland fruit fly,Bactrocera tryoni

The sterile insect technique has been used for more than 50 years to control a range of insects around the world. Sterile insect technique is rapidly becoming a major component of many area‐wide fruit fly management programmes. Irradiation of immature life stages induces sterility in adults, which are then distributed over large areas to mate with wild flies, resulting in no viable offspring. However, irradiation in normal air results in declining adult quality. To optimize the quality of sterile adult flies, several techniques are available to lower the levels of oxygen in fruit fly tissues prior to irradiation. The simplest method is to seal pupae in plastic bags and allow the oxygen consumption of pupae to minimize oxygen in both the air and pupal tissue. Some fruit fly species have rapid decreases in eclosion as a result of low oxygen atmospheres. We tested the tolerance of Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), to low oxygen for the first time. In the first two experiments, unirradiated B. tryoni pupae were tested for different periods in sealed plastic bags at 17, 21, and 26 °C. Optimum eclosion occurred at 21 °C with the lowest eclosion at 26 °C. In general, mean full eclosion declined at ca. 0.1% eclosion per hour sealed in plastic bags during the first 96 h for all temperatures. In the third and fourth experiments at 17 °C, there was a decline in average eclosion for irradiated and unirradiated pupae of about 13.4% after they were sealed in plastic bags for 192 h. In general, B. tryoni eclosion declined at 0.1% per hour inside sealed plastic bags for periods up to 192 h at 17 °C. Queensland fruit flies can tolerate long periods of conditions found inside sealed plastic bags and current practices for sterile B. tryoni release programmes will result in minimum decrease in eclosion. The possible evolution of tolerance of these conditions is discussed.     

Effect of heat stress on survival and reproduction of the olive fruit fly Bactocera (Dacus) oleae

The olive fruit fly Bactrocera (Dacus) oleae Gmelin is a major olive pest in Greece and other Mediterranean countries. Its population density and respective olive infestation is usually low in many areas of northern Greece during summer months. To some extent, this may be due to the prevailing high temperature and low relative humidity conditions. In the present work the effects of short term exposure to high temperatures on the survival and egg production of B. oleae pre‐imaginal stages and adults were studied under laboratory conditions. Different larval instars within infested green olive fruits, adults and pupae and were exposed for 2 h to a series of different high constant temperatures ranging from 34 to 42°C. Subsequently, survival percentages of pre‐imaginal stages and adults as well as the number of eggs laid by females previously exposed to high temperatures were determined. At temperatures up to 38°C high survival percentages of larvae and adults were observed, whereas pupae displayed a relatively increased heat tolerance up to 40°C. Female longevity and egg production were substantially reduced after heat stress. Prior acclimation at 33°C for 1 and 3 days resulted in increased adult survival following heat stress. We discuss the results with respect to the ability of the fly to survive and reproduce under high summer temperatures.     

南亚果实蝇各虫态发育历期及有效积温研究

【背景】南亚果实蝇是世界性的检疫性害虫,在我国多个省市发生为害,对瓜果作物造成了严重的经济损失。【方法】采用人工恒温饲养方法,分别设置10、14、18、22、26、30、34℃7个恒温条件,测定不同温度条件下南亚果实蝇卵、幼虫和蛹的生长发育历期,并推算出相应的发育起点温度和有效积温。【结果】南亚果实蝇卵、幼虫和蛹的发育起点温度分别为7．36、2．43、7．64℃,卵期、幼虫期和蛹期的有效积温分别为20．21、187．69和156．65日度。完成整个世代的发育起点温度是7．64℃,有效积温为364．55日度。当温度达到34℃时,卵的发育历期相对延长,而蛹则不能正常发育,无法羽化为成虫。【结论与意义】在10～30℃,南亚果实蝇的卵、幼虫和蛹的发育历期随温度升高而缩短,各虫态的发育速率和温度呈显著正相关;在26和30℃下,卵、幼虫和蛹的发育历期均显著短于其他各处理温度的发育历期。该试验结果为了解南亚果实蝇的发育温度极限和进一步开展该害虫的适生性分析提供了基础信息,进而为制定该虫的检疫措施提供依据。     

Emergence of flies from overwintering populations of cabbage root fly pupae

ABSTRACT.

• 1 Once pupal diapause had been terminated, over-wintering cabbage root fly (Delia radicum (L.)) pupae from Wellesbourne required a further 14 days at 20°C for most of the flies to emerge.
• 2 There were considerable variations in the rates of fly emergence from thirteen populations of cabbage root fly pupae collected between latitudes 50° 42′ and 54° 59′ in England and Wales. These thirteen populations could be grouped into early-, intermediate- and late-emerging types. In the early-emerging type, flies emerged within 14 days at 20°C whereas in the late-emerging type emergence was protracted and was completed only after 100 days at 20°C in one population from Halsall, Lancashire. In the intermediateemerging type, approximately two-thirds of the flies emerged within 14 days at 20° C, the remainder taking considerably longer.
• 3 The intermediate-emerging types could be just mixtures of the early- and late-emerging types.
• 4 Subjecting pupae to diapause-breaking temperatures (4°C) for up to 1 year failed to shorten the time to subsequent fly emergence in any of the populations.
• 5 Populations of early, intermediate- and late-emerging fies could be selected from a parental population, heterogeneous with respect to emergence, within one generation.
• 6 The type of emergence that occurred in a locality was not correlated with latitude.
• 7 Any models developed for forecasting the most appropriate time to apply insecticide in a locality will have to include information about the emergence pattern of the fly population in that locality.

     

Methods of short-term storage of cultures of the blowfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calliphora Vicina</Emphasis> R.-D. (Diptera,Calliphoridae)

Three methods of short-term storage of the blowfly Calliphora vicina strains are considered based on the experimental study of 21 strains originating from different parts of the species range. The colony can be preserved as diapausing adults at 6° and darkness for 2–3 months or more, depending on the geographical origin of the population. During the first five days of adult life the flies should be kept at 12° and short day on a sugar diet, after which they should be transferred into a refrigerator. During artificial hibernation the flies also require periodic sugar feeding every 20 days (3–4 h at 20°C) to maintain their vital functions. The combination of temperatures of 20–23°C and a protein diet terminates reproductive diapause, and oviposition starts in 10–17 days. The fly strain may be preserved as reproductive females at 6°C and darkness with sugar feeding. Flies also require periodic sugar feeding at 20°C (3–4 hours). In this case the flies start laying eggs 2–3 days after being transferred to 20–23°C. The preservation of diapausing larvae is a more reliable method of prolonged strain storage. In this case the flies of maternal generation are maintained at 20–23°C on sugar and protein diet. The egg rafts laid during 5–6 hours are then transferred into 12°C and short day until hatchment. The hatched larvae should be immediately placed into a refrigerator (2–3 or 5–6°C), where they feed during 1–1.5 months and enter diapause. For strain restoration, the diapausing larvae should be transferred into 20–25°C, where they pupariate in 3–5 days and the flies emerge in nearly 10 days.     

Temperature‐dependent development of the double‐spined spruce bark beetle Ips duplicatus (Sahlberg, 1836) (Coleoptera; Curculionidae)

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Diapause development in early and late emerging phenotypes of Delia floralis

The turnip fly, Delia floralis Fall6n （Diptera： Anthomyiidae） is an important insect pest of brassica vegetable crops in the holarctic region. Different populations have strongly varying temperature requirements for fly emergence, a challenge for accurate prediction of activity. This study focused on diapause development in one early and one late emerging phenotype. The physiological state after various treatments was deduced from emergence data. Our results showed a slow diapause progression at chilling conditions for both populations and diapause ended about 7 months after pupae were formed for the early population. For the late population held at 4℃ diapause did not end, no matter how long the duration of chilling. These pupae required a period with elevated temperatures above 6~C to continue development. At constant non-chilling conditions （18℃） from the time pupae were formed both populations completed diapause most rapidly. These results indicate that chilling delayed, rather than accelerated development and was not a prerequisite for diapause development. For post-diapause, results indicated a linear relationship between rate of development and temperature within the range of 6-18℃and a theoretical base temperature for development of about 2℃ for both populations. In conclusion, D. floralis pupae are in diapause throughout a long winter period, and delayed emergence of the late population appears to be caused by prolonged diapause regulated by a developmental temperature threshold. The study has added information on the biology of turnip fly populations, a prerequisite for improved pest control.     

Variation of superoxide dismutases during the development of the fruit fly Ceratitis capitata L.

Superoxide dismutase levels were estimated in eggs, larvae and pupae of the fruit fly $\text{Ceratitis capitata}$, as well as in adult flies. No changes occur in the first three stages, but development of the adult fly is accompanied by a large increase in mitochondrial superoxide dismutase per gm of material, and a much smaller relative increase in the cytoplasmic enzyme.     

温度对丝带凤蝶生长发育的影响

温度对丝带凤蝶生长发育的研究。结果表明,丝带凤蝶在武汉地区1年发生6代。在15~35℃范围内,卵孵化率、幼虫和蛹存活率分别在25,25和20℃时最高,卵、幼虫和蛹发育历期随温度升高显著缩短;适宜发育温度范围为20~35℃。丝带凤蝶卵、幼虫和蛹的发育起点温度分别约为(8.7±2.5)℃、(11.9±6.0)℃和(6.9±1.8)℃,有效积温分别约为(82.5±5.1),(222.2±39.5)和(178.7±7.3)日.度。     

Effects of acclimation and diapause on the cold tolerance of Trogoderma granarium

Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae), is a pest of stored grain in Africa, Asia, and Europe. It is a quarantine insect for much of the rest of the world. Control of T. granarium can be achieved with methyl bromide, but this fumigant is an ozone‐depleting substance and is being phased out worldwide. Thus, there is an urgent need to find new methods of control, including the use of low temperatures. Here, we assess the effects of diapause and cold acclimation on the cold tolerance of T. granarium. The percentage of larvae in diapause increased with larval density, reaching 57.3% when reared at a density of 73 larvae g^?1 diet. The cold tolerance of T. granarium was assessed by the supercooling points (SCPs) of various life stages. The SCP of non‐acclimated insects ranged from ?26.2 ± 0.2 °C (mean ± SEM) for eggs to ?14.4 ± 0.4 °C for larvae. The lowest SCP for larvae, ?24.3 ± 0.3 °C, was obtained for diapausing‐acclimated larvae. Based on mean LT₅₀ values, the most cold‐tolerant stage at ?10 °C was the diapausing‐acclimated larvae (87 days) followed by non‐diapausing‐acclimated larvae (51 days), diapausing non‐acclimated larvae (19 days), adults (4 days), non‐diapausing non‐acclimated larvae (2 days), pupae (0.4 days), and eggs (0.2 days). The estimated times to obtain 99.9968% mortality (Probit 9) for diapausing‐acclimated larvae are 999, 442, 347, 84, and 15 days at 0, ?5, ?10, ?15, and ?20 °C, respectively. Probit 9 is an estimated value used by quarantine experts to estimate conditions that are required to kill all insects. In light of the long exposure time needed to control T. granarium even at ?20 °C, cooling to below ?27 °C (i.e., below the SCP of eggs) will quickly kill all life stages and may be the best way to control this insect with low temperatures.     

温湿度对烟青虫实验种群的影响

对烟青虫Helicoverpa assulta(Guenee)在不同温湿度条件下的发育历期、生存率、繁殖力进行了研究.在20℃、24℃、28℃、32℃和36℃恒温下,世代存活率分别为23.28%、 37.04%、44.22%、30.21%和8.28%,种群趋势指数分别为3.45、65.68、72.57、30.69 和0.卵期、1-6龄期幼虫、预蛹和蛹的发育起点温度分别是12.03℃,10.39℃、8.97℃、 8.96℃、10.87℃、11.23℃、9.16℃、11.40℃和10.69℃,有效积温分别是47.62日度、56.46 日度、44.30日度、40.57日度、26。26日度、33.94日度、64.61日度、34.50日度和202.45日度。每天4h 39℃以上高温对烟青虫的存活和繁殖不利。在28℃和32℃下,湿度可影响初龄幼虫、预蛹和蛹的存活,但对历期的影响不大。     

Host-plant susceptibility to the carrot fly, Psila rosae. 2. Suitability of various host species for larval development

Several apiaceous and two asteraceous species were tested for their suitability to support larval development of the carrot fly. Plants grown in pots or transplanted from seed beds into pots, were inoculated with a specific number of eggs. Pupae and non-pupated larvae were collected 6–7 wk after inoculation. Both the number and weights of pupae produced varied widely among the species. Cultivated carrots Daucus carota sativus often gave rise to only moderate numbers of pupae, but these invariably attained the highest weights. Pimpinella major was the only apiaceous plant tested that did not yield any carrot flies. The two asteraceous plants Cichorium intybus and Tanacetum vulgare failed to support larval development. Total carrot fly biomass produced per plant was influenced by both the host species and the root weight. Emergence rates of adult flies were positively correlated with pupal weights. Small individuals tended to have a longer total developmental time from egg to adult fly.     

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II of the oriental fruit fly,Bactrocera dorsalis,and its association with rapid cold hardiness

The oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, is a serious insect pest with diverse host range. Furthermore, its invasive and polyphagous behaviors allow this species to expand its habitats. Recent climate change and increase of international trade/transportation facilitate the species expansion from subtropical to temperate regions. Low temperature during winter appears to be the major factor limiting its expansion to temperate zones in the northern hemisphere. This study reports its remarkable ability in rapid cold-hardening (RCH) along with deep supercooling capacity. A brief exposure to 9?°C significantly enhanced cold tolerance of its larvae, pupae, and adults. RCH took 1–2?h for pupae and adults, although it took 24?h for larvae. Supercooling capacity of pupae was also enhanced by RCH treatment from ?13.4?°C to ?16.6?°C. To trace genetic factors associated with RCH, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (Bd-CaMKII) was identified from B. dorsalis and their expression in response to RCH treatment was analyzed. Bd-CaMKII possesses three conserved domains of kinase, calmodulin, and oligomerization. Bd-CaMKII is highly homologous to CaMKII of D. melanogaster and other tephritid flies. Expression levels of Bd-CaMKII in the larvae treated with RCH were significantly increased by approximately 5.5 folds compared to those in control larvae. In addition, expression levels of HSP70 and HSP90 were also increased in response to RCH treatment. These results along with previous studies suggest that cold-hardening of B. dorsalis is functionally associated with its supercooling capacity with increased production of cryoprotectants and HSP through regulatory activity of Bd-CaMKII.     

Laboratory studies on the biology ofSpalangia nigra [Hym.: Pteromalidae]

At 21 °C,Spalangia nigra Latreille (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) averaged 29.3 days between exposure and emergence of 1^st progeny from host house flies,Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). At 27 °C, the average developmental time to 1^st emergence was reduced to 26.6 days, and a majority of adult wasps emerged from host house fly puparia between 29 and 40 days postoviposition. The sex ratio of progeny ranged from 1.4 to 1.8 female-to-male, but all progeny of virgin females were male. Male wasps lived from 6.8–15 and females 11–17.8 days at 27 °C; honey as a food source increased longevity. No significant differences in parasitism byS. nigra were associated with host house fly pupal densities ranging from 1 to 200 pupae per female-male pair of wasps, but average percent parasitism decreased at host densities greater than 50. House fly pupae exposed to parasitism at ages ranging from 4 to 96 h did not differ in subsequent production of adult flies.S. nigra did not demonstrate preference for house flies or stable flies,Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) as hosts. The results of these studies indicate thatS. nigra may contribute significantly to previously unexplained mortality of house flies and stable flies.      

The effect of inoculation with Selenophoma donacis at different growth stages on spring barley cultivars

A technique used for 3 yr to produce 15 000–20 000 nematode-free adult Megaselia halterata/v/k is described and its potential for future mass-production of nematode-parasitised flies, for use in biological control, is assessed. Gravid female phorids preferred to oviposit in compost in which mushroom mycelium had grown for 7–12 days. At 20 ± 1 °C flies began to emerge 24 days after adults of the previous generation had been released on the compost. By day28, 88% of the total population had emerged. In laboratory experiments using different densities of parental flies, fly yield per female was highest when 200 flies infested each 1 kg of compost. At higher densities, competition between larvae affected survival of larvae and pupae, and probably resulted in the mean egg content of emerging flies being reduced by as much as 16-4%. Theoretically, 250 kg compost should yield 1 150 000 phorids.     

Multispectral imaging for quality control of laboratory‐reared Anastrepha fraterculus (Diptera: Tephritidae) pupae

The sterile insect technique (SIT) has been widely used to suppress several fruit fly species. In southern Brazil, millions of sterile flies of the South American fruit fly, Anastrepha fraterculus Wiedemann (Dipetra: Tephritidae), will be produced in a mass‐rearing facility called MOSCASUL to suppress wild populations from commercial apple orchards. In spite of standard rearing conditions, the quality of pupal batches can be inconsistent due to various factors. The quantification of poor quality material (e.g. empty pupae, dead pupae or larvae) is necessary to track down rearing issues, and pupal samples must be taken randomly and evaluated individually. To speed up the inspection of pupal samples by replacing the manual testing with the mechanized one, this study assessed a multispectral imaging (MSI) system to distinguish the variations in quality of A. fraterculus pupae and to quantify the variations based on reflectance patterns. Image acquisition and analyses were performed by the VideometerLab4 system on 7‐d‐old pupae by using 19 wavelengths ranging from 375 to 970 nm. The image representing the near infrared wavelength of 880 nm clearly distinguished among high‐quality pupae and the other four classes (i.e. low‐quality pupae, empty pupae, dead pupae and larvae). The blind validation test indicated that the MSI system can classify the fruit fly pupae with high accuracy. Therefore, MSI‐based classification of A. fraterculus pupae can be used for future pupal quality assessments of fruit flies in mass‐rearing facilities.