The Roman cemeteries of Tienen and Tongeren: results from the archaeobotanical analysis of the cremation graves

Up to now there has been little archaeobotanical research on Gallo-Roman graveyards in Belgium. This paper presents the preliminary results of the investigation of the cremation graves of the graveyards at Tienen and Tongeren, dated from the first up to the beginning of the fourth century a.d., and respectively located in the provinces of Vlaams-Brabant and Limburg. The structures studied mainly consisted of pits containing secondary deposits of pyre debris, but a few busta (where cremation took place in situ in or above a pit) could be analysed as well. The results presented here will focus on the most conspicuous finds. The only bustum grave excavated in Tongeren proved to be extremely rich in remains of Lens culinaris (lentil), Vicia faba var. minor (Celtic bean) with some Vicia ervilia (bitter or lentil vetch), concentrated in the presumed area of the head of the deceased. Some of the graves in Tienen, on the other hand, contained some less frequently found taxa, as for example Vitis vinifera (grape), Olea europaea (olive), Pyrus communis (pear), Prunus insititia and/or domestica (plums, in the broad sense) and Cornus sanguinea (dogwood). Most graves however, showed a typical assemblage consisting of mainly pulses and cereals, commonly found in cremation graves. In that respect a certain similarity between both graveyards could be noticed, which is also reflected in the anthropological study. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

A Franco-Italian investigation of funerary rituals in the Roman world, “les rites et la mort à Pompéi”, the plant part: a preliminary report

This paper deals with the botanical study of a family funerary enclosure located in the Porta Nocera necropolis in Pompeii (southwestern Italy). This study is part of a Franco-Italian programme investigating Roman funerary rituals. The choice of the context was due to the exceptional preservation of the archaeological features, which offered the opportunity to observe the remains of the proceedings which took place in a funerary enclosure in great detail. An adequate methodology had to be developed and a 3D recording of every single artefact or ecofact has been made. Both ground surfaces and graves provided botanical results. Those from the ground surfaces consisted mainly of fruit offering residues (especially fig and grape), while a much wider range of species was observed in the tombs, including cereals, pulses, other kinds of fruits, weeds and bread/pastry. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Subsistence strategies of two Bronze Age hill-top settlements in the eastern Alps—Friaga/Bartholomäberg (Vorarlberg, Austria) and Ganglegg/Schluderns (South Tyrol, Italy)

Up to now, archaeobotanical investigations of prehistoric sites in the eastern Alpine region have been rare. Recent palaeoethnobotanical investigations of carbonised plant remains from two Bronze Age hill-top settlements, one located north and the other south of the main Alpine range, contribute essentially to the knowledge of subsistence strategies and husbandry regimes in the Alps in prehistoric periods. The principal cereals were Hordeum vulgare (hulled barley), Triticum dicoccon (emmer) and Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet). In general, hulled barley was the most important cereal crop in the eastern Alps. Legumes such as Vicia faba (horse bean) and Pisum sativum (pea) also occurred regularly in both hill-top settlements. In addition to these field crops, a large variety of wild plants was still gathered and contributed considerably to the daily diet. The arable weed flora suggests that crops were sown in spring and autumn and it indicates crop rotation in this period. The results of the plant macrofossils imply a complex pattern of plant resource utilisation in the Alpine area during the Bronze Age.     

Plant offerings from Roman cremations in northern Italy: a review

This paper reviews the remains of plants (cereals, pulses, fruit and vegetables) used as offerings in cremation burials in northern Italian Roman cemeteries between the 1st century b.c. and the 3rd century a.d. The custom of burning plant offerings on the funeral pyre was widespread in the Iron Age, but in the Roman Empire such offerings became more frequent and abundant, with fruit being prevalent and also the recurrent use of various prepared foods (bread, cakes and suchlike). In each cemetery this general scheme exhibits variations probably due to individual, social, ritual and economic differences, but this impression must be still confirmed. The absence of a systematic sampling strategy does not permit a statistical approach to offering data. The aim of this article is to encourage archaeologists and archaeobotanists to pay more attention to methodology in sampling. This would also permit careful comparison of the archaeobotanical data with archaeological, anthropological and historical information and that from written sources. The consistently recorded presence of fruit in cemeteries makes it possible to investigate some aspects of the introduction, cultivation and marketing of certain food plants in northern Italy.     

A Celtic, La Tène trade centre in Ramsautal in the Dürrnberg, Austria: Macrofossil data towards reconstruction of environment and food plants

Soil samples from a La Tène salt-mining settlement were examined for botanical macroremains. Mining, trade and metal-processing (bronze and iron) were major elements in this prehistoric economic centre situated in the high-altitude Ramsau valley (Ramsautal), near Hallein, province of Salzburg. Cultigens found are broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare), naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var.nudum), emmer (Triticum dicoccum), spelt (Triticum spelta) and peas (Pisum sativum). Most of the plant remains consisted of non-charred seeds and fruits that originated from the close vicinity of the settlement. The species may be assigned mainly to nitrophilous ruderal communities and moist to wet habitats. Conditions in the valley were probably unsuitable for the cultivation of cereals. It is suggested that the crop plants derive mainly from the fertile lower plains of the pre-Alpine lowlands.     

Cremation practices coexisting at the S’Illot des Porros Necropolis during the Second Iron Age in the Balearic Islands (Spain)

The necropolis of S’Illot des Porros, one of the most important prehistoric funerary sites of the Balearic Islands (Spain), was in use from the VIth and Vth century BCE until the Ist century CE. Located in a funerary area which contains two cementeries and one sanctuary, this site is constituted by three funerary chambers named A, B and C, respectively. Investigations on all the human burnt bone remains of the chambers, carried out mainly by the X-ray diffraction and supplemented in some cases by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy pointed to the simultaneous use of inhumation and cremation funerary rites, probably due to existing social differences.In particular, it was argued that the chambers were differentiated, i.e., B was dedicated to inhumations and A to cremations, the cremations found in chamber B very likely being a result of a cleaning-purification of the burial area. Moreover, chamber C, which is the most ancient (IVth century BCE) and with the largest number of inhumed remains, contains the smallest number of remains that were exposed to fire and just in one case it seems possible to attribute a genuine high-temperature cremation.     

Nutrition, aspects of land use and environment in medieval times in southern Germany: plant macro-remain analysis from latrines (late 11th–13th century a.d.) at the town of Überlingen, Lake Constance

From high medieval courtyards at überlingen, Lake Constance (Bodensee), 17 archaeobotanical samples from seven latrines (11th–13th century) were analysed for plant macrofossils. They contained small amounts of cultivated plants and many well preserved seeds and fruits of wild plants. The most numerous cereal finds were of Triticum spelta followed by Secale cereale. Recorded oil plants were Papaver somniferum and Linum usitatissimum. Cultivated and gathered fruits such as various Prunus species, Pyrus communis and Malus domestica, Rubus sp. and Fragaria vesca were eaten by the people of überlingen. Only one seed of Ficus carica was found which may have been imported; no other imported plants could be recognised. Agrostemma githago and Vaccaria hispanica were prevalent weeds. The presence of the latter probably indicates the cultivation of cereals on the steeper slopes above überlingen. It is shown that in central Europe, V. hispanica became a troublesome weed only around the 12th/13th century A.D. Grassland species—mainly from more or less wet locations—and ruderal plants of nitrogen-rich soils were well represented in the samples and characterize the surrounding area. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at     

Plant husbandry and vegetation of early medieval Douai,northern France

This paper describes the results of the archaeobotanical examination of early medieval occupation deposits (8th to 11th centuries A.D.) at Douai, northern France. Carbonized as well as waterlogged seeds and fruits were recovered in great numbers. In addition to the macrofossil analyses, a palynological examination of occupation deposits was carried out. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) was the most common cereal, followed by rye (Secale cereale). Common oat (Avena sativa) and hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare) must have played a fairly modest role. In addition to cereals, field pea (Pisum sativum) was an important crop plant. Four types of plum (Prunus domestica) fruitstones are distinguished. Sweet cherry (Prunus avium) as well as sour cherry (P. cerasus) were cultivated. Other cultivated fruit trees included peach (Prunus persica) and medlar (Mespilus germanica). Sloe (Prunus spinosa) fruits, including those of the var. macrocarpa, were gathered from the wild. The palynological data suggest that the Douai area had virtually been cleared of forest. A comparison between pollen and seed proportions points to serious discrepancies between the macrofossil and microfossil plant records. Weeds of arable land (Secalietea, Polygono-Chenopodietalia) and vegetations of ruderal habitats (Sisymbrietalia, Artemisietalia vulgaris) are well represented. Molinietalia vegetations in the valley of the Scarpe river were probably exploited as hay meadows; good pasture land was provided by the Arrhenateretalia grasslands.     

Crops and agriculture during the Iron Age and late antiquity in Cerdanyola del Vallès (Catalonia,Spain)

Various sites in the valley of the Sant Cugat stream in Cerdanyola del Vallès (Catalonia) were subject to systematic archaeobotanical sampling to obtain an overview of the crops and agriculture of the area during the Iron Age and late antiquity. In all cases, the most numerous taxa were crop plants. Among these, cereals were clearly predominant at all sites investigated, especially Hordeum vulgare var. vulgare (hulled barley) and Triticum aestivum/durum (bread or macaroni wheat), both in numbers and frequency. Other cereals, such as Triticum dicoccum (emmer) or Setaria italica (foxtail bristle-grass), were regularly present in considerably lower numbers but in fairly high frequencies. Pulses were much less numerous, although their presence increases in terms of frequency. Among them, clearly the best represented was Lens culinaris (lentil). The results show that the agriculture in the period considered was principally based on winter cereals, with a gradual substitution of hulled barley by bread/hard wheat, accompanied by other cereals of minor importance, led by Triticum dicoccum (emmer), and pulses. The appearance of Vitis (grapevine) in the Iberian period is one of the important characteristics of agriculture in the Iberian world. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Missing plant macro remains as indicators of plant exploitation in Predynastic Egypt

Tubers, leaves and mericarps are underrepresented plant remains in most archaeological sites either due to their tissue softness or small size and fragility. The more resilient and hard cereal remains, drupes, seeds and grains are frequent at most archaeological sites. The remarkable preservation status of organic material retrieved from archaeological sites in arid regions across the world, such as Egypt, increases the possibility of observing such missing botanical material. The present study discusses results of analysing the contents of a basket recovered within an intact grave (Burial 333) of the Predynastic period (3600 B.C.) in cemetery HK 43 at Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt. The basket was found beside the elbows of the flexed burial of a woman, 40–50 years of age. The cemetery at HK 43 served the non-elite segment of society, as indicated by the overall paucity of grave goods. Children and older women appear to have been most favoured with gifts and among these better endowed graves, Burial 333 stands out for the variety of materials, suggesting that she was a woman of some standing within her community. Botanical contents of the basket include remains of Cyperus (sedge tubers), Anethum graveoloens L. (dill mericarps) and drupes of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile (balanites) as well as narrow slivers of coniferous wood and other types of plant remains. In addition, objects found in and around the basket include a cosmetic palette, five awls of polished bone, an ivory comb, pendants and amulets, which may be part of a cosmetic kit. In terms of palaeoethnobotanical investigations, this basket is another source of plant macro remains to be added to previous sources recovered from the same cemetery, such as the contents of pottery vessels, matting and viscera contents. This evidence shows that the Predynastic inhabitants adopted a subsistence strategy based on the cultivation of cereals, emmer wheat as the likely staple, and the gathering of wild fruits and tubers as well as herding of livestock. The botanical assemblage identified from the basket suggests the exploitation of wet swamp habitats to collect wild tubers of Cyperus esculentus L., C. rotundus/laevigatus and culms of Juncus sp. On the other hand, the nearby desert habitat was a source of edible fruits like Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordia sinensis Lam. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. The outcome of this study is evidence for the existence of a mixed strategy of subsistence involving herding, gathering and farming in Predynastic Egypt. This revised version was published online February 2005 with corrections to the author’s name which was incorrect in the original version.     

Sebesten fruits (Cordia myxa L.) in Gallia Narbonensis (Southern France): a trade item from the Eastern Mediterranean?

Archaeobotanical studies carried out by rescue archaeology at N?mes and Marseille (Southern France) provided evidence of Cordia myxa during the 2nd and 3rd centuries a.d. The fruit stones were found both waterlogged in domestic contexts and charred in a cremation grave (plant offering). Data from these finds and a survey of historical documents and archaeobotanical literature are combined here to discuss the origins and uses of these fruits in the western world.     

Plant Resources from the Bronze Age and the first Iron Age in the northwestern arc of the Mediterranean Basin

This paper updates the question of plant resources during the Bronze Age and First Iron Age in the northwestern Mediterranean Basin. Among the cereals, six-row hulled barley is dominant throughout the territory, whereas naked and hulled wheats take on greater or lesser roles from region to region. Millet cultivation developed during the Bronze Age and became widespread in the First Iron Age. Apart from cereals, pulses, oil species and fruit appear to be secondary. Results from the study of archaeobotanical remains on wetland sites, however, lead us to question this finding, as oil plants and fruits are much better represented in waterlogged conditions. The cultivation of vine began in the First Iron Age. In spite of a number of characteristics common to plants throughout the study area, regional differences, evident in the Bronze Age, seem to dissipate in the First Iron Age.     

Comparative analysis of plant finds from Early Roman graves in Ilok (Cuccium) and Sćitarjevo (Andautonia), Croatia--a contribution to understanding burial rites in southern Pannonia

A comparative archaeobotanical analysis of the plant remains from the Early Roman incineration graves in Ilok and S?itarjevo shows the existence of a complex burial ritual, but at the same time enables a better understanding of the agriculture and trade of the 1st/early 2nd century AD in southern Pannonia. Most of the cereals found (Hordeum vulgare, Panicum miliaceum, Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccon, T. aestivum i T. cf. spelta), the legumes (Lens culinaris, Vicia ervilia) and the fruit contributions (Cucumis melo/sativus, Malus/Pyrus sp., the Prunus avium group, P. domestica, Vitis vinifera) were probably grown in the vicinity of the investigated localities, but they might at the same time have been trade goods. Trade was undoubtedly well developed at that period, as shown by the remains of the fig (Ficus carica) and olive (Olea europaea), typically Mediterranean crops, in the finds. All the species of cereals, except millet (Panicum miliaceum) in S?itarjevo, and of bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) found in the Ilok grave were carbonised and were probably placed on the funeral pyre with the departed. The lentil (Lens culinaris) and the other fruit remains were non-carbonised and mineralised, which means that they were placed in the grave in fresh, dried or cooked form as food for the deceased (belief in an immortal soul), as remains of the funerary feast, or as a sacrifice to the goods.     

Aspects of early medieval farming from sites in Mediterranean France

This paper reviews archaeobotanical remains (seeds and fruits) from some early medieval sites in the Mediterranean area of southern France (Lower Languedoc, Roussillon, Provence and Corsica). Four periods are distinguished, from the 5th-6th to the 11th-12th centuries A.D. The influence upon the results of the reliability of the samples, and the type of features from which they came, is discussed. The few sites with abundant material limit the evidence for the farming system. A comparison with northern France shows differences in the role of some crops in the local economy. The main crop plants were Triticum aestivum/durum, Hordeum vulgare and Vitis vinifera, followed by relatively smaller amounts of Avena sativa. Secale cereale and Panicum miliaceum occur sporadically. Specific identification of hulled wheat (T. dicoccum/spelta and T. cf. monococcum) is equivocal. The occurrence of Vicia faba var. minor, Pisum sativum, Lathyrus cicera and Linum usitatissimum varies between sites. The number of Lens culinaris finds indicates its probable cultivation. The occurrence of Cicer arietinum is limited in assemblages of this area. As in previous centuries, Vitis vinifera is the most common fruit of French medieval sites. Written sources from Catalonia and Languedoc and results from rescue excavations indicate that the nature of viticulture changed after the Gallo-Roman period. Other cultivated fruits, Olea europaea, Prunus dulcis, P. domestica, P. avium, P. persica, Pinus pinea, Morus nigra, Ficus carica, Juglans regia and gathered wild fruit occur rarely. The farming, which was based on mixed farming, includes use of wetland and meadow.     

Burnt sacrificial plant offerings in Hellenistic times: an archaeobotanical case study from Messene, Peloponnese, Greece

Messene, situated on the southwest Peloponnese, Greece, was founded in 369 B.C. by Epaminondas, after the liberation of Messenia from Spartan rule. During the 2001 excavation campaign on the site, large numbers of carbonised fruits were recovered from a sacrificial context, dated to the end of the 3rd century B.C. This material was very rich thanks to the remarkable preservation of the plant remains. Cones and seeds of stone pine, olives, grape and almonds were present in the samples. A particularly interesting find was the presence of five whole chestnuts, the first find of carbonized fruits of Castanea sativa in Greece. The comparison of the Messene finds with other plant offerings recorded in Classical times in Greece and in Archaic and Roman Italy provides useful information about the composition of sacrificial offerings in antiquity. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Effects of organ removal on trade‐offs between sexual and clonal reproduction in the stoloniferous herb Duchesnea indica

Resource allocation patterns and trade‐off between sexual and clonal reproduction in clonal plants have been extensively studied, but little is known about effects of organ removal on the trade‐offs in clonal plants. To examine the effects, we conducted an experiment with the stoloniferous herb Duchesnea indica in which we removed plant organs like roots, flowers, or fruits. Removing roots significantly increased number of ramets and biomass allocation to stolons, but decreased number of fruits. Removing flowers or fruits greatly increased number of ramets and biomass allocation to stolons and roots, but decreased spacer length, number of fruits, and fruits set. Onset and median date of flowering phenology of D. indica shifted after flowers, fruits, or roots were removed. These results may indicate that removing organs can affect trade‐off between sexual and clonal reproduction of D. indica.     

Evidence for plant exploitation and vegetation history from three Early Neolithic pre-pottery sites on the Euphrates (Syria)

Archaeobotanical results based on a limited number of samples from three aceramic sites dating from 9800 to 7800 B.P., which are under excavation in the valley of the Middle Euphrates, are discussed. The finds are presented simply by presence, and are compared to the contemporary vegetation and finds from similar sites. Carbonised plant remains recovered by flotation from levels dated to between 9800 and 9200 B.P. (Dja'de and Jerf al Ahmar) indicate that wild cereals (einkorn wheat, rye and barley) and pulses (lentils, pea and bitter vetch) were exploited. Other plants such as wild grasses, Pistacia, wild almond and oak, suggest that the local vegetation provided a rich diversity of resources. A study of possible weed taxa is being carried out in order to see whether this assemblage could be used to identify the cultivation of morphologically wild cereals for this period. Ninth millennium B.P. levels at Halula see the appearance of domestic crops such as emmer, naked wheat and barley, but wild-type cereals persist. The cultivars appear to have been introduced from elsewhere and later ninth millennium B.P. species include olive and flax. Ash, vine, maple, plane, alder and elm from the gallery forest, wild rye, wild einkorn, deciduous oak, wild almond, Pistacia, and Pyrus, from the hinterland, indicate cooler conditions.     

Crop husbandry at Miri Qalat Makran, SW Pakistan (4000–2000 B.C.)

Large scale sampling for plant remains at Miri Qalat indicates that agriculture based on naked wheat and naked and hulled barley was practised between the 4th and the 2nd millennia B.C. Other cultivated plants identified areLens culinaris (lentil),Pisum sativum (pea),Linum usitatissimum (flax),Vilis vinifera (grape) andCoriandrum salivum (coriander). The only summer crop,Sesamum indicum (sesame), appears during the second half of the 3rd millennium. Gathered edible fruits includeCordia, Grewia andNannorrhops ritchieana.Phoenix dactylifera (dates) may also have been gathered rather than cultivated.     

Evidence for Prehistoric Origins of Egyptian Mummification in Late Neolithic Burials

Traditional theories on ancient Egyptian mummification postulate that in the prehistoric period (i.e. the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, 5^th and 4^th millennia B.C.) bodies were naturally desiccated through the action of the hot, dry desert sand. Although molding of the body with resin-impregnated linen is believed to be an early Pharaonic forerunner to more complex processes, scientific evidence for the early use of resins in artificial mummification has until now been limited to isolated occurrences during the late Old Kingdom (c. 2200 B.C.), their use becoming more apparent during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1600 BC). We examined linen wrappings from bodies in securely provenanced tombs (pit graves) in the earliest recorded ancient Egyptian cemeteries at Mostagedda in the Badari region (Upper Egypt). Our investigations of these prehistoric funerary wrappings using a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and thermal desorption/pyrolysis (TD/Py)-GC-MS have identified a pine resin, an aromatic plant extract, a plant gum/sugar, a natural petroleum source, and a plant oil/animal fat in directly AMS-dated funerary wrappings. Predating the earliest scientific evidence by more than a millennium, these embalming agents constitute complex, processed recipes of the same natural products, in similar proportions, as those utilized at the zenith of Pharaonic mummification some 3,000 years later. The antibacterial properties of some of these ingredients and the localized soft-tissue preservation that they would have afforded lead us to conclude that these represent the very beginnings of experimentation that would evolve into the famous mummification practice of the Pharaonic period.     

Effect of fungal species involved in the olive fruit rot on the qualitative properties of olive oil

Olive oil is the most important product of olive fruits with worldwide consumption, particularly in Mediterranean countries. Olive oil is generally extracted mechanically from the olive fruits. Some biotic and abiotic factors may affect the quality of oil extracted from olive fruit. Contamination with fungi during growth period in the garden or during the conservation of the harvested crop under storage condition may leave negative effects on the quality of olive oil. However, there is no data available on the effects of fungal infections on qualitative properties of olive oil in Iran. In the present study effects of several fungal groups previously isolated from rotten olive fruit in olive orchards including Alternaria alternata, Fusarium nygamai, Aspergillus ochraceus, Arthrinium phaeospermum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aureobasidium pullulans, Epicoccum nigrum, Penicillium expansum, Truncatella angustata, Trichothecium roseum and Trichoderma harzianum were evaluated on some qualitative properties of olive oil, under laboratory condition on two olive cultivars (Zard & Roghani). For this purpose fresh and healthy fruits of olive, were surface sterilisation with 96% ethanol and rinsed with sterile water and then inoculated with each of the fungal groups separately using spore suspension (10^6?ml^?1). The experiment was carried out in two replicates for each treatment (fungal isolates). The results of this study revealed that fungal infection caused significant increase in the extracted oil acidity and peroxide values. However, there was no significant difference in the acidity and peroxide values among different treatments (fungal isolates).