Agriculture and food from the Roman to the Islamic Period in the North-East of the Iberian peninsula: archaeobotanical studies in the city of Lleida (Catalonia, Spain)

The urban archaeological excavations carried out in the city of Lleida (Catalonia, Spain) have opened the way for an interdisciplinary project on the ancient landscape, agriculture and food. Here we present the results of the archaeobotanical study of seeds and fruits from this project, centred on the Roman and Islamic periods of the city, between the 2nd century B.C. and the 11th century A.D. During the whole of this period the cultivation and consumption of cereals was found. The most important cereals were hulled barley and naked wheat. This was already known from the later prehistoric era in the area and is similar to findings at other sites from the same period in the western Mediterranean. These cereals are accompanied by some leguminous crops and the presence of grapes and figs is very significant. The expansion of vine cultivation, together with a certain amount of tree growing was one of the basic contributions of the Roman world to proto-historical (Bronze- and Iron Age) agriculture in western Catalonia, as in other parts of Europe. In the Islamic period, there seems to have been an increase in the number of fruit tree species; however for taphonomical reasons this has to be confirmed by future investigations. Flax, already known in prehistoric times, and Gold-of-pleasure must be added to the finds. Also since the Roman period some other taxa, such as celery or fennel, might have been grown. During the time period considered in this paper, there was a wide range of plants grown and consumed. This clearly contrasts with everything known about earlier periods in western Catalonia, during which the only cultivated plants were cereals and flax.     

Late Celtic and early Roman plant remains from the oppidum of Bibracte, Mont Beuvray (Burgundy, France)

Two single assemblages of cereals and chaff from the oppidum Bibracte, (Burgundy, France), give evidence of cereal trade, food supply and crop processing in late Celtic and early Roman times. The first deposit consists mainly of Triticum dicoccon chaff which was buried in a wooden box near the sanctuary of La Terrasse. The second assemblage was a store of different wheats and barley excavated in a Roman cellar at the Pature du Couvent. The analyses of these finds are presented, and recent archaeobotanical research at Mont Beuvray is summarized.     

The history of cereals in the region of the former Duchy of Swabia (Herzogtum Schwaben) from the Roman to the Post-medieval period: results of archaeobotanical research

Archaeobotanical results from the investigations of cereal finds in southwestern Germany and northern Switzerland have been mapped. Seven phases are distinguished, from Roman to early modern (Post-medieval). Methodological problems are discussed concerning sampling, identification, preservation, type of site, feature and assemblage, which influence the representation of the results. The main results are as follows. In the Roman period, Triticum spelta was the main crop, except in the upper Rhine valley (Oberrheinebene) where T. aestivum was more abundant. In the Migration period and Early Medieval period several crops are of similar importance. The reason was a rather simple economic system, a subsistence economy for each village, and perhaps cereal and grassland rotation (Feld-Gras-Wirtschaft). In the High Medieval period, Secale cereale was the dominant grain in the northern part of the region up to the Danube (Donau). In Switzerland, T. spelta dominated. In the landscape in between, from Lake Constance (Bodensee) to the upper Neckar valley, there was a mixture of both. These rather clear spectra, commonly dominated by one cereal species, express the changed economic system: the three field system (Dreifelderwirtschaft) and an increasing role of the market economy. Even in the Late Medieval and Post-medieval periods S. cereale and T. spelta remained the main crops. The present dominance of T. aestivum and Hordeum vulgare is a very recent development, less than a century old. The less important cereals, T. monococcum and Panicum miliaceum, occur regularly until Post-medieval times. T. dicoccum was very rare in this region from the Roman period onwards.     

An 11th century a.d. burnt granary at La Gravette, south-western France: preliminary archaeobotanical results

A thick layer of carbonised seeds was encountered in an 11th century a.d. room situated in the seigneurial part of the village of La Gravette. This paper presents the first results of charcoal and seed analyses which give information on the food products stored in the granary and on their arrangement there. Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum was by far the most important stored crop, while Avena sp., then Hordeum vulgare, Secale cereale, Triticum monococcum and Vitis vinifera were secondary. Weeds were poorly represented. Charcoals were dominated by deciduous Quercus sp., and 11 additional wood taxa were recorded, including especially Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus sp., Rosaceae, Corylus avellana, Acer campestre and Ulmus sp. According to the charcoal distribution, Quercus and Fagus were probably building materials while most of other taxa would have been used for basketry, wattling or joinery work. In the western part of the granary, naked wheat was stored in bulk. In the eastern part, various crops (at least naked wheat, barley, rye, oat and grape) were stored in small amounts, most of which were probably separated by light wooden structures. The cereal crops had largely been processed and cleaned. The stored products probably represent taxes paid to the lord who owned the granary.     

Distinguishing food from fodder through the study of charred plant remains: an experimental approach to dung-derived chaff

Distinguishing human food from fodder in the archaeobotanical record is a difficult task. These categories are culturally defined and, therefore, not obvious from the plant species represented in archaeological samples, while context, such as storage area or container is not necessarily distinctive for each category. While grain can be consumed as either human food or fodder, depending on the particular needs of a given society, chaff is less suitable for human consumption and more appropriate for other uses, one of which is fodder. Archaeobotanical assemblages from two Late Neolithic sites in northern Greece (Makriyalos and Makri) are dominated by glume-wheat chaff, often in association with fig seeds. This material may well represent the remains of dung, but it was not known if the cereal component was eaten by livestock or mixed with the dung to form dung cakes. Our contribution presents the results of an experiment involving the feeding of einkorn grain and chaff (whole and pounded spikelets) and figs to goats to investigate the effect of livestock digestion on plant material. The implications of this work for the interpretation of archaeobotanical assemblages that may derive from animal dung are considered using the Greek Neolithic assemblages. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at     

Archaeobotany at Oplontis: woody remains from the Roman Villa of Poppaea (Naples, Italy)

The Vesuvius area near Naples, southern Italy, is one of the richest places for archaeological finds from Roman times. The a.d. 79 volcanic eruption also caused the preservation of a huge quantity of archaeobotanical material. In this paper the available wood and charcoal remains from the timber structures as well as from the garden soils of the Villa of Poppea at Oplontis are presented. The analyses provide new evidence of the history of some significant trees of the Mediterranean region, such as Abies alba and Cupressus sempervirens, and allow us to put forward hypotheses about wood use during the Roman period. The identification of the building material confirms that the Romans had a good knowledge of the technological properties of wood and mainly used local resources. There is also evidence of trade in high quality timber, in particular Picea abies. The strong presence of climbing plants and of branches and small size stems of wild trees together with typical ornamental plants in the two gardens of the villa reveals a lack of regular gardening maintenance. This evidence is in agreement with the absence of occupants at the moment of the eruption, since the villa was under restoration after the a.d. 62 earthquake.     

Charred plant remains from a 10th millennium B.P. kitchen at Jerf el Ahmar (Syria)

The Pre-potteryNeolithic A (PPNA) site of Jerf el Ahmar, Syria, dated to the 10th millennium uncal B.P., has produced over 657 flotation samples which are now under study. The results described in this article were obtained from the analysis of 32 samples of charred plant remains taken from a room of 2.5 × 3 m, which had been destroyed by fire. The room contained three saddle querns, two flat polished stone plates (each of 60 cm in diameter), one hearth, and three limestone "basins". These objects were in situ and the room appeared to represent a food preparation area (kitchen). On one of the querns two charred seed cakes were found. The finely ground seeds have been identified as Brassica/Sinapis, a rare taxon for this period. The major taxa, which are morphologically wild, have distinct spatial distributions, which provide evidence for plant processing activities. Hordeum spontaneum and Triticum/Secale were processed separately. The association of H. spontaneum with stone basins suggests soaking of this grain. Received August 10, 2001 / Accepted January 7, 2002     

An ammonite–fish association from the Kimmeridgian (Upper Jurassic) of La Rochelle, western France

A partially disarticulated actinopterygian fish preserved in a large three-dimensional ammonite body chamber is described from the Kimmeridgian of western France. Taphonomic observations on the degree of preservation of the fish and the development of epibiont organisms on the inner wall of the shell indicate a rather long time interval before sediment totally filled the body chamber. The fish, referred to an indeterminate Macrosemiidae, probably used this empty ammonite ( Rasenioides , Aulacostephanidae) shell as a refuge, or possibly for spawning and/or brooding. It can be assumed that ammonite shells may have constituted common shelters for demersal fishes living in an open-marine shelf environment, near to a muddy bottom devoid of rocks.     

Skeletal evidence of operations on cadavers from Sens (Yonne,France) at the end of the XVTH century

Human remains giving direct evidence concerning the history of dissection practices are rare. Thirteen cranial fragments which bear evidence of having been purposely cut and sawn were discovered in a crypt during excavations undertaken in Sens (Yonne, France). Ceramics date these remains to the period from the end of the XIVth to the end of the XVIth centuries. Nine individuals are represented: one adolescent and eight adults of both sexes. The position of the cutmarks, which' were produced by a long, sharp cutting tool, show that the scalp was completely removed from the skull. The sawing, which was done with a large-toothed saw, was both clockwise and counterclockwise in direction. The sawn surfaces reveal a deliberate attempt not to damage the brain. This procedure is compared to that of modern autopsies. The remains from Sens are also compared with several other sawn cranial fragments recently discovered in France and England. Three hypotheses are discussed: embalmment, autopsy, and anatomical studies. Analysis of these remains and historical documentation suggest embalmment and/or autopsy as the probable purpose of the opening of the skull. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Ophiuroid remains from the Toarcian of Sainte-Verge (Deux-Sèvres, France): paleobiological perspectives

The Toarcian sediments exposed at Sainte-Verge (Deux-Sèvres, France) are especially rich in echinoderm remains. The present paper describes and illustrates the ophiuroids. On the basis of lateral arm plates, 13 species are distinguished, including two new ones: Sinosura fasciata sp. nov. and Sinosura extensa sp. nov. Most of the recognized species have been recorded previously from the Late Toarcian and Aalenian in Germany and, to a lesser extent, from the late Early Jurassic of England and Switzerland. High similarities between the faunas of northwest Europe suggest a boreal provincialism of ophiuroids. The recognition of 13 species is comparable to the diversity known from other stratigraphic levels (Jurassic and Cretaceous) or in the richest stations of recent oceans. The species association of the Toarcian of Sainte-Verge, with two Ophiolepididae, one Ophiacanthidae, four Ophioleucidae, two Ophiodermatidae, two Ophiuridae, and one Hemieuryalidae may be compared with species associations of recent shelf, offshore environments. Such persistence of components of diversity and ecological affinities of species suggests strong evolutionary conservatism of the ophiuroids, after a rapid radiation during the earliest Jurassic. © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.     

Degenerative Joint Disease and enthesopathies in a Bronze Age population from Sindou cave (Senaillac-Lauzes,Lot, France)

The anthropological characteristics of the people who lived during the cultural period of the Late Bronze Age in South West France still remain practically unknown because very few sites have provided skeletal remains which permit of an exhaustive study. The cave of Sindou is, in that sense, one of the scarce exceptions. Although the sample of Sindou cannot be considered as representative of the whole regional population (N=50), we studied the presence and severity of DJD and enthesopathies of microtraumatic origin with the aim of finding some data which contribute to the knowledge of several biological aspects of this human group. From the results of the comparisons of the Sindou remains with two different medieval samples, a great similarity is deduced for these skeletal markers, but the higher frequency and severity of Achilles tendon enthesopathy in Sindou is a probable index of a higher level of physical stress at this specific localisation.     

Biostratigraphical precisions on the Early Serpukhovian (Late Mississippian), by means of a carbonate algal microflora (cyanobacteria, algae and pseudo-algae) from La Serre (Montagne Noire, France)

The microbial-dominated part of a Late Mississippian (Early Carboniferous) carbonate olistolite at La Serre (Montagne Noire, southern France) yielded interesting algae and pseudo-algae. The constituents are well known cyanobacteria (not described) and different representatives of poorly known or new species: cyanobacteria: Aphralysia capriorae, Hedstroemia (?) serrana n. sp., Dasycladales: Paraepimastopora sp., Nanopora sp., Cabrieropora pokornyi and E. occitanica, Anatoliporaceae: Richella incrustata, Caulerpales: Poncetellina (?) sp., questionable Archaeolithophyllaceae: Hortonella sp., Archaeolithophyllaceae: Neoprincipia with Neopricipia fluegeli, Neoprincipia petschoriaeformis n. sp., Neoprincipia claviformis n. sp. and Archaeolithophyllum ex gr. lamellosum; pseudo-algae Aoujgaliida: Stacheoidella spissa, Ungdarella uralica, and Fasciellidae: Fasciella and Praedonezella, with both polymorph species: Fasciella kizilia, and Praedonezella ex gr. cespeformis. This carbonate microflora is dated as Early Serpukhovian (Pendleian) by its association with the foraminifera Janichewskina, “Biseriella” and “Warnantella”. This dating is confirmed by the little more advanced algal assemblage, compared to the Latest Visean (Brigantian) assemblages from Montagne Noire (e.g. Japhet, Castelsec), and more primitive than the Late Serpukhovian (Arnsbergian) of Ardengost (Pyrenees). The importance of the calcifoliid pseudo-algae—Fasciella, Praedonezella, and Calcifolium (although this latter is locally lacking)—is suggested for the biozonation of the Visean/Serpukhovian boundary.     

Temporal distribution of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) in a lake-reservoir (Moselle,France): analysis of catches with vertical gill nets

Four fishing periods within a yearly cycle between 1990 and 1991 were carried out in the lake-reservoir of Mirgenbach, lake of the nuclear power station in Cattenom (Moselle, France). The catches of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) were analyzed.In all, about 630 perch were caught in 8 sampling stations. The analysis of seasonal catches of this carnivorous fish was made according to size and mesh; a simple correspondence factor analysis enabled us to establish that this species lived in different areas depending on the season.     

Typological versus morphometric separation of orthophragminid species in single samples - a case study from Horsarrieu (upper Ypresian, SW Aquitaine, France)

Thirteen different orthophragminid taxa could be separated typologically from a single sample collected by C.W. Drooger from the late Ypresian of Horsarrieu, marnière Sourbet (SW France). Drooger doubted the existence of many co-occurring evolutionary lineages of larger foraminifera in the Eocene suggesting that this may be an artifact of the typological species concept widely used by the Paleogene larger foraminiferal experts. It is shown here that typologically determined taxa can be separated as well with the morphometric method, recommended by Drooger. This proves also the validity of the concept of simultaneous evolutionary lineages. It has been found that the typological method is preferable when separating different taxa in single samples, but in some cases, the independence of quantitatively close populations can only be proved biometrically. At the same time, the morphometric method is more advantageous in characterizing the evolution within particular evolutionary lineages because it gives much more reliable stratigraphical results. The 13 orthophragminid taxa from Horsarrieu are systematically described. A new species, Orbitoclypeus droogeri nov. sp., and two new chronosubspecies, O. furcatus palaeofurcatus and Asterocyclina stella praestella are introduced.     

A methodological approach to the study of microbotanical remains from grinding stones: a case study in northern Gujarat (India)

The thorough reconstruction of subsistence practices throughout human history remains one of the most challenging questions in archaeological research. Analyses of microbotanical remains recovered from archaeological artefacts have greatly contributed to our knowledge of past livelihood strategies. However, certain methodological issues are seldom addressed throughout these analyses, including the integration of multiple proxies, the comparison between samples and the interpretation of control samples. This paper addresses these methodological concerns through the analysis of phytoliths and starch grains from a total of 80 samples from grinding tools from four archaeological occupations (ca. 7150–1900 cal bc) in northern Gujarat (NW India). The results were compared with 26 control samples from the same sedimentary matrix from which the tools were recovered and 12 control samples from laboratory consumables. Multivariate statistics were applied to (a) compare control samples with grinding stones to assess sample contamination and representativeness, (b) compare samples from different sites, and (c) identify tool clusters within a site. This study stresses the importance of the integrated analysis of phytoliths and starch grains and the application of multivariate statistics, which allow for stronger interpretations on the use and post-depositional trajectories of grinding stones, thus offering a solid framework for the reconstruction of past subsistence strategies. Moreover, the results show that the inhabitants of northern Gujarat continuously exploited small millets throughout the Holocene and that pulses, secondary at first, became a fundamental part of their subsistence strategy with the advent of settled life.     

A stegosaur vertebra (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) from the Callovian (Middle Jurassic) of Sarthe, western France

A dinosaur vertebra found in the course of road works in the “Chevain Marls” (marine Callovian) of the Vermont outlier, near the village of Béthon (Sarthe, Pays-de-la-Loire, western France) is described and referred to a stegosaur (cf. Lexovisaurus). It is the first record of a dinosaur in the Middle Jurassic of that area. The specimen was probably derived from the floating carcass of an animal that had lived on the emerged areas of the Armorican Massif, near which the Chevain Marls were deposited. This fossil is an addition to the short list of stegosaur remains reported from France.     

Botanical analysis of a bundle of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) from an early medieval site in northern Poland; a contribution to the history of flax cultivation and its field weeds

A bundle of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) radiocarbon dated to 1210±70 uncal B.P. (830±90 cal A.D.) was analysed for its macrofossil content. Apart from stems, capsules and seeds of flax., a large number of diaspores (fruits and seeds) from other plants was identified. Field weeds were the most numerous taxa present, among them three flax field weeds,Spergula maxima, Camelina alyssum andCuscuta cpilinum. Development of the specific flax weed community is discussed. Indicator values are used to characterize the edaphic conditions of this early medieval flax field. The field weeds spectrum also suggests that this flax was sown as a summer crop after an earlier crop of millet.     

Bioerosional structures and pseudoborings from Late Jurassic and Late Cretaceous-Paleocene shallow-water carbonates (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria and SE France) with special reference to cryptobiotic foraminifera

Examples of bioerosional processes (boring patterns) are described from shallow-water limestones of the Late Jurassic Plassen Carbonate Platform (PCP) and the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene Gosau Group of the Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria. Some micro-/macro-borings can be related to distinct ichnotaxa, others are classified in open nomenclature. In the Alpine Late Jurassic, bioerosional structures recorded from clasts in mass-flows allow palaeogeographical conclusions concerning the source areas. In particular, these are borings of the Trypanites-ichnofacies detected from clasts (Barmstein limestones) of the PCP or special type of bored ooids of unknown source areas or restricted autochthonous occurrences. In the Lower Gosau Subgroup, Gastrochaenolites macroborings occur in mobile carbonate clast substrates of shore zone deposits (“Untersberg Marmor”). Different types of borings are recorded from rudist shells and coral skeleton, some of which are referable to the ichnotaxon Entobia produced by endolithic sponges. In the present study, special attention is paid to the occurrences of the cryptobiotic foraminifera Troglotella incrustans Wernli and Fookes in the Late Jurassic and Tauchella endolithica Cherchi and Schroeder in the Late Cretaceous. The latter is so far only known to be from the Early Cenomanian of France and is reported here for the first time from the Late Turonian-Early Coniacian stratigraphic interval where it was found in turbulent carbonate deposits within borings penetrating bivalve shells or coralline algae. The records of cryptobiotic foraminifera from the Northern Calcareous Alps are supplemented by a single finding from the Middle Cenomanian of SE France. A palaeoenvironmental interpretation of the occurrences of the cryptobiotic foraminifera is provided.     

Inclusions of conifers,echinoids, foraminifers and sponges in flints from the Cenomanian of Charente-Maritime (France): Contribution of synchrotron microtomography

Deposits containing silica-rich nodules were recently collected from the Font-de-Benon quarry, between Archingeay and Les Nouillers, Charente-Maritime, western France. Nodules contain diverse fossil inclusions such as conifers, urchins, foraminifers and sponge spicules. Cenomanian deposits were transformed during the Eocene-Oligocene by a delayed silicification. This occurred under a warm climate and a long pedogenic alteration. X-ray synchrotron tomography was used to locate and produce three-dimensional reconstruction of flint fossil inclusions. The plant fossils constitute an unusual case of late permineralization. The conifer and invertebrate fossil assemblage suggests a coastal palaeoenvironment close to a forest.     

Archaeobotanical investigations in Liguria: preliminary data on the early Iron Age at Monte Trabocchetto (Pietra Ligure,Italy)

The archaeological site we studied is part of an early Iron Age hill fort (8th/7th cent. b.c.), located 800 m from the coast on the top of a hill named MonteTrabocchetto. This paper concerns an excavation, called saggio O, which disclosed a very varied stratigraphy characterised by highly anthropogenic layers and by a pit, presumably used as a silo for food storage, which was very rich in charred seeds and fruits. The study of the pit content showed the dominance of Hordeum vulgare, while Triticum dicoccon, T. monococcum, T. aestivum/durum, Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica were less strongly represented. Some edible Leguminosae were also found (Lens culinaris, Vicia faba var. minor and V. ervilia). In the frequented areas around the pit, herbaceous weeds and fruit tree macro-remains were present (Prunus cf. spinosa, Corylus avellana, Quercus sp. and Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris). The identification of a large number of botanical taxa has provided important information on food of plant origin and agricultural practices during the early Iron Age on the Ligurian coast, the proto-historic archaeobotanical aspects of which are largely unknown.