Aglycosylated antibodies and antibody fragments produced in a scalable in vitro transcription-translation system

We describe protein synthesis, folding and assembly of antibody fragments and full-length aglycosylated antibodies using an Escherichia coli-based open cell-free synthesis (OCFS) system. We use DNA template design and high throughput screening at microliter scale to rapidly optimize production of single-chain Fv (scFv) and Fab antibody fragments that bind to human IL-23 and IL-13α1R, respectively. In addition we demonstrate production of aglycosylated immunoglobulin G (IgG₁) trastuzumab. These antibodies are produced rapidly over several hours in batch mode in standard bioreactors with linear scalable yields of hundreds of milligrams/L over a 1 million-fold change in scales up to pilot scale production. We demonstrate protein expression optimization of translation initiation region (TIR) libraries from gene synthesized linear DNA templates, optimization of the temporal assembly of a Fab from independent heavy chain and light chain plasmids and optimized expression of fully assembled trastuzumab that is equivalent to mammalian expressed material in biophysical and affinity based assays. These results illustrate how the open nature of the cell-free system can be used as a seamless antibody engineering platform from discovery to preclinical development of aglycosylated monoclonal antibodies and antibody fragments as potential therapeutics.     

An in vitro coupled transcription-translation system from Staphylococcus aureus

We have developed a Staphylococcus aureus cell-free system that is capable of directing DNA-dependent synthesis of proteins. The staphylococcal plasmids pE194 and pSK265 were used to characterize this system. The in vitro system was found to direct the synthesis of the appropriate proteins predicted from the nucleotide sequence of the plasmids. As is the case in vivo, low levels of the inducer, erythromycin, promoted the synthesis of the pE194-encoded ribosomal RNA methyltransferase in the in vitro system.     

In vitro expression of Penicillium janthinellum cellobiohydrolase I gene in a coupled transcription-translation system

An enzymatically-active fungal cellobiohydrolase I (CBH I) was first synthesized in a coupled reticulocyte lysate system lacking of glycosylation modification by the template DNA(Cbh1) in the presence of T7 RNA polymerase. The synthesized CBH I had the expected size (57 kDa) and catalyzed the substrate of p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-cellobioside (pNPC), and had no activity against carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Na). The K(m) and V(max) values of the CBH I for pNPC were 0.82 mmol and 0.067 micromol min(-1) per microg enzyme, respectively. The results indicated that glycosylation may not be necessary for enzymatic activity of fungal cellulases.     

Characterization of monoclonal antibody fragments produced by plant cells

Production of a murine IgG1 was investigated using hairy roots, shooty teratomas, and suspended cells of transgenic tobacco. In all cases, in addition to complete assembled antibody, two to four major antibody fragments accumulated in the biomass. A range of protease inhibitors, protein-stabilizing agents, inhibitors of N-glycosylation and protein secretion, glycan-reactive agents, and affinity probes was used to characterize these fragments and investigate their sites and mechanisms of formation. The fragments were not experimental artifacts caused by antibody degradation during tissue homogenization and sample preparation, nor did they represent glycosylation variants. All of the molecules were actively secreted into the culture media and some showed evidence of Golgi-associated glycan processing, indicating they were not assembly intermediates. Antibody fragments of 50 and 80 kDa were identified mainly as the products of extracellular degradation in the root and shoot apoplast; the 80-kDa fragment was also present in cell suspension medium, and in suspended cell biomass toward the end of the growth phase. Larger 120- and 135-kDa fragments were most likely produced by proteolytic degradation along the secretory pathway outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus; the carbohydrate residues of the 135-kDa antibody suggest formation between these organelles. Inhibition of protein secretion and retention of antibody in the ER and/or Golgi reduced fragmentation and increased antibody accumulation levels, probably by reducing exposure to the principal sites of protease activity. This work highlights the importance of foreign protein degradation in plant tissues as a mechanism for posttranslational product loss. Identifying the nature of these degradative processes is a first step toward alleviating their effects, improving protein yields, and enhancing the feasibility of plants as a commercial means for large-scale protein production.     

Alternative downstream processes for production of antibodies and antibody fragments

Protein-A or Protein-L affinity chromatography and virus inactivation are key processes for the manufacturing of therapeutic antibodies and antibody fragments. These two processes often involve exposure of therapeutic proteins to denaturing low pH conditions. Antibodies have been shown to undergo conformational changes at low pH, which can lead to irreversible damages on the final product. Here, we review alternative downstream approaches that can reduce the degree of low pH exposure and consequently damaged product. We and others have been developing technologies that minimize or eliminate such low pH processes. We here cover facilitated elution of antibodies using arginine in Protein-A and Protein-G affinity chromatography, a more positively charged amidated Protein-A, two Protein-A mimetics (MEP and Mabsorbent), mixed-mode and steric exclusion chromatography, and finally enhanced virus inactivation by solvents containing arginine. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Recent advances in molecular engineering of antibody.     

Self-immobilizing recombinant antibody fragments for immunoaffinity chromatography: generic, parallel, and scalable protein purification

We present the directed immobilization of recombinant antibody fragments as ligands for general immunoaffinity chromatography methods. It is based on fusion proteins of scFv fragments with several chitin-binding domains which can be immobilized directly from a crude bacterial lysate on inexpensive chitin beads for the purification of proteins without any gradient or detector. It has been used with a positive pressure manifold, allowing the parallel processing of 24 different samples on a milligram scale, as convenient as plasmid isolation. The method is demonstrated with several anti-protein antibodies. In addition, methods are presented of using an anti-His tag antibody either alone or directly coupled to IMAC to obtain very pure protein. As those methods are scalable, they should prove very useful in the parallel purification of natural and recombinant proteins on small scales (for proteomics), medium scales (for crystallography and NMR), and very large scales (for therapeutic proteins).     

Single chain antibody fragments for ocular use produced at high levels in a commercial wheat variety

We are investigating the use of single chain antibody fragments (scFv) in eye drops for diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases. For ocular use, recombinant proteins must be free of bacterial endotoxin that causes inflammation in the eye. We required a means of generating high yields of scFvs with little endotoxin contamination. Using microprojectile bombardment we produced transgenic lines of the commercial wheat variety, Westonia, that express two scFvs that bind to CD4 or CD28 on the surface of rat thymocytes. A high level of expression of active scFv in the range 50-180 microg/g was measured by quantitative flow cytometry in crude extracts made from mature seeds. The levels of expression were stable over four generations of transgenic plants and mature seeds were stored for one year with little loss of scFv activity. Substantial purification of scFv was achieved by immobilised metal affinity chromatography. Compared to bacterial extracts, crude transgenic seed extracts contained only a small amount of endotoxin (150 EU/ml) that will be easily removed by purification. The transgenic wheat lines express functional scFv at levels comparable to production in bacteria and promise to be superior to bacteria for production of scFv pharmaceuticals for ocular use.     

Modulation of transferrin receptor expression and function by anti-transferrin receptor antibodies and antibody fragments

It has been suggested that effects of anti-transferrin receptor antibodies on cell growth and receptor expression are the result of varying degrees of receptor crosslinking by bi- and multivalet binding agents. In order to study this question directly, we have cultured murine lymphoma cells in mono- and divalent fragments from IgG and IgM monoclonal anti-transferrin receptor antibodies and in intact antibodies. The studies presented here demonstrate that effects of antibody binding on transferrin receptor distribution, metabolism, and function depend, at least in part, on antibody valence, and therefore on the degree of crosslinking of receptors by antibody. We found that monovalent antibody fragments did not significantly alter cell growth, receptor surface expression, intracellular localization, or degradation. Diavalent antibody caused a uniform down-regulation of cell-surface receptor expression, which was accompanied by increased degradation only when antibody Fc was present. Normal receptor cycling apparently continued, despite the reduction in surface expression. Culture in multivalent IgM antibody, however, resulted in accumulation of antibody-complexed receptor on the cell surface without internalization and caused profound inhibition of cell growth. Thus, we show two mechanisms by which different degrees of antibody crosslinking can influence transferrin receptor function: by receptor down-regulation and blocking internalization.     

Biodistributions of intact monoclonal antibodies and fragments of BLCA-38, a new prostate cancer directed antibody

Background: Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) are used for targeting agents to tumours while minimizing normal tissue exposure. Methods: A new anti–prostate cancer MAb, BLCA-38, was radioiodinated (I¹²⁵) and assessed for its ability to target subcutaneous human prostate cancer (DU-145) xenografts after systemic intraperitoneal administration. For comparison, the profile of J591 MAb (now in clinical trial) against LNCaP-LN3 tumours was examined. Biodistribution profiles were obtained at various times, by assessing injected dose/gram (%ID/g) and xenograft to blood (X/B) ratios. Microautoradiography of xenografts was performed. After conjugation with a melittin peptide toxin, the profiles of BLCA-38 and J591 were compared with that of an irrelevant antibody, DS-1. Results: Xenograft localization by ¹²⁵I-labeled BLCA-38 and J591 MAbs to their relevant antigen-positive tumors was comparable, and there was no unusual localization in nontumour tissues. F(ab)₂ and Fab fragments gave improved X/B ratios, but the %ID/g xenograft was decreased and they accumulated in kidneys, bladder and stomach. In contrast, the conjugates of irrelevant antibody showed no tumour targeting. Microautoradiography showed more tumour accumulation of MAbs than F(ab)₂s or Fabs. Conclusions: BLCA-38 can target prostate cancer in vivo almost as effectively as J591. Given that J591 is used clinically, BLCA-38, which targets a different antigen, has potential for radioimmunoscintigraphy and for therapeutic targeting of prostate cancer.