病毒蛋白Vpx介导抗病毒因子SAMHD1降解的研究进展

艾滋病是由于HIV感染引起的一种致死率极高的传染病。在HIV-2/SIV中特异性表达的Vpx蛋白可以促进病毒在特定细胞中的复制。这种促进作用是由Vpx介导CRL4E3复合物形成,进而通过蛋白酶体途径降解抗病毒因子SAMHD1实现的。SAMHD1蛋白的多个结构域,包括N末端、入核信号、连接区、HD结构域、以及C末端对于Vpx诱导的降解都具有重要意义。缺少Vpx的HIV-1在进化过程中也逐渐获得了抵御宿主抗病毒因子SAMHD1的能力,如对低dNTPs水平的忍耐力及通过cyclin L2对SAMHD1进行降解。本文依据文献发表的时间进程,结合最新研究成果,对Vpx介导SAMHD1降解并促进病毒感染的作用机制进行综述。     

具有广泛抗病毒活性的SAMHD1蛋白的研究进展

SAMHD1蛋白是2011年首次被认定为一种独特的天然抗病毒因子,它主要在树突状细胞、巨噬细胞等髓系细胞中表达。它通过降解细胞内dNTPs的水平,使细胞内的dNTPs的水平低于病毒复制所需的水平,从而抑制髓系细胞中反转录病毒和DNA病毒的复制。HIV-2产生的病毒蛋白X(Vpx)可将泛素连接酶与SAMHD1相结合,使SAMHD1分子最后被蛋白酶体降解。最近还发现SAMHD1蛋白活性受多种因子影响,具有调节肿瘤细胞中LINE-1活性的功能。结合最新研究成果对SAMHD1的结构、功能、抗病毒机制以及影响因子进行综述。     

HIV-1辅助蛋白Vif的结构与功能

HIV-1 Vif(viral infectivity factor)蛋白是由保守的vif基因编码的碱性蛋白质,是HIV-1病毒的辅助调节蛋白之一.研究表明Vif蛋白具有调节病毒侵入、组装、出芽和成熟等功能.此外,Vif蛋白能够特异性地与体内抗病毒因子APOBEC3G相互作用,增强病毒的感染性.因此,针对HIV-1Vif蛋白进行抑制剂设计已经成为抗HIV药物研究的热点之一.本文对HIV-1Vif蛋白的结构与功能研究的最新进展进行了综述.     

髓系单核细胞来源的HIV-1限制性因子——SAMHD1

天然抗病毒限制因子是HIV-1研究最热点的领域。继APOBEC3G、Trim5α、Tetherin被发现之后,SAMHD1于2011年被发现为新的抗HIV-1限制因子。它主要在髓系来源的单核细胞中表达,如巨噬细胞和树突状细胞。该文对SAMHD1的结构、抗病毒机制、与Vpx的相互作用以及进化等方面的研究进行了综述。SAMHD1的发现为深入研究SAMHD1在慢病毒致病机理中作用打开了一扇门。     

束缚蛋白抗HIV机制

束缚蛋白(tetherin)是一种具有特殊功能的蛋白质,它可抑制包膜病毒从感染细胞中释放。研究发现,人的束缚蛋白可将新生的HIV-1病毒颗粒固定在细胞表面,同时,它还可以减小HIV-1子代病毒的传染性。本文将主要从分子结构、抗HIV-1病毒的作用机制和在HIV传播中的作用三方面来阐述束缚蛋白抗病毒作用的最新研究进展。     

植物抗病毒病育种策略

为了得到抗病毒的寄主植物,植物育种学家进行了许多有益研究,形成了许多行之有效的抗病毒病育种策略。利用植物本身对病毒侵染所具有的一些免疫功能及其本身的一些抗性基因来获得抗性;利用来源于病毒自身基因的一些抗病性策略(PDR),如利用病毒外壳蛋白基因,病毒复制酶基因,病毒移动蛋白基因,病毒卫星RNA和反义RNA等,植物也可以获得抗性。近年来对由转录后RNA沉默引起的由RNA介导的病毒抗性策略(RMVR)也进行了深入地研究。除了PDR和RMVR以外,还有一些导致植物抗病毒的策略,包括利用美国商陆的病毒抗性蛋白(PAP),2',5’-寡腺苷酸合成酶,“植物抗体”以及病毒蛋白多肽来获得病毒抗性等。     

病毒感染因子在APOBEC3G抗病毒中的拮抗作用

病毒感染因子(virion infectivity factor, Vif)是人免疫缺陷病毒(human im_mu_n_o_de_fi_cien_cy virus, HIV)的6个辅助蛋白之一, 是病毒进行有效复制所必需的.由于Vif功能的复杂性以及对相应复合物体系的不了解, 一直以来, 对Vif的研究进展缓慢.直到2002年发现载脂蛋白B mRNA编辑酶催化多肽样蛋白3G (apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3G, APOBEC3G)是存在于细胞内的一种天然抗病毒因子后, Vif的功能才被逐步阐明.APOBEC3G主要通过嘧啶脱氨基活性使HIV-1的负链DNA在逆转录过程中发生致死性超突变, 从而起到抗病毒作用.HIV-1基因编码Vif来拮抗APOBEC3G, 二者在宿主细胞内达到动态平衡.Vif通过介导APOBEC3G降解、减少在胞内的表达、阻碍其向病毒粒子的包装以及促使其装配成无活性的高分子质量复合体等多种途径起到中和作用.对Vif/APOBEC3G相互作用及其调节机制的进一步研究, 将为新型抗HIV-1病毒药物的研制与开发提供理论依据.     

SAMHD1蛋白抗病毒作用机制研究的新进展

作为新发现的抗病毒因子,SAMHD1蛋白是近年来分子生物学界研究的热点,但是其抗病毒作用机制尚不明确。已经报道的可能的抗病毒作用机制包括d NTP水解酶活性和T592位点的磷酸化状态。随着近两年来研究的不断发展,SAMHD1蛋白的RNA酶活性和维持基因组稳定性的重要作用相继被发现。与此同时,SAMHD1蛋白的多聚体结构也受到了广泛的关注,从最初得到的二聚体晶体,到最近证实了GTP作为激活剂才能形成有抗病毒活性的同源四聚体,SAMHD1蛋白的多聚体结构及形成机制都得到了新的阐释。综合各种已知的生物学功能以及结构方面的信息,结合最新发表的研究成果,深入而全面地分析了SAMHD1蛋白复杂的抗病毒作用机制。     

HIV-1 Tat蛋白与艾滋病脑病

Tat 蛋白是HIV-1 编码的反式转录激活因子,其主要功能是反式激活HIV-1病毒基因组转录的起始和延伸,启动病毒复制.近年来研究发现,Tat 蛋白在HIV-1感染所引起的严重中枢神经系统（CNS）并发症--艾滋病脑病中起重要作用,是艾滋病脑病发生与发展的重要致病因子.本文就HIV-1 Tat蛋白在艾滋病脑病中的研究进展作一综述.     

MxA蛋白抗病毒机制及其应用前景

本文主要论述了MxA基因在Ⅰ型干扰素(IFN-α/β)或病毒诱导下可表达具广谱抗病毒作用的Mx蛋白(小鼠为Mx1,人类为MxA),并介绍了MxA蛋白的抗病毒谱及其机制,论述了MxA表达与病毒(HIV-1、HBV、HCV等)感染性疾病发生和发展的相关性,以及在判定IFN疗效中的应用.既有理论意义,又有广阔的应用前景.     

Nuclease Activity of the Human SAMHD1 Protein Implicated in the Aicardi-Goutières Syndrome and HIV-1 Restriction

The human HD domain protein SAMHD1 is implicated in the Aicardi-Goutières autoimmune syndrome and in the restriction of HIV-1 replication in myeloid cells. Recently, this protein has been shown to possess dNTP triphosphatase activity, which is proposed to inhibit HIV-1 replication and the autoimmune response by hydrolyzing cellular dNTPs. Here, we show that the purified full-length human SAMHD1 protein also possesses metal-dependent 3′→5′ exonuclease activity against single-stranded DNAs and RNAs in vitro. In double-stranded substrates, this protein preferentially cleaved 3′-overhangs and RNA in blunt-ended DNA/RNA duplexes. Full-length SAMHD1 also exhibited strong DNA and RNA binding to substrates with complex secondary structures. Both nuclease and dNTP triphosphatase activities of SAMHD1 are associated with its HD domain, but the SAM domain is required for maximal activity and nucleic acid binding. The nuclease activity of SAMHD1 could represent an additional mechanism contributing to HIV-1 restriction and suppression of the autoimmune response through direct cleavage of viral and endogenous nucleic acids. In addition, we demonstrated the presence of dGTP triphosphohydrolase and nuclease activities in several microbial HD domain proteins, suggesting that these proteins might contribute to antiviral defense in prokaryotes.     

Co-evolution of primate SAMHD1 and lentivirus Vpx leads to the loss of the vpx gene in HIV-1 ancestor

Cross-species transmission and adaptation of simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) to humans have given rise to human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs). HIV type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) were derived from SIVs that infected chimpanzee (SIVcpz) and sooty mangabey (SIVsm), respectively. The HIV-1 restriction factor SAMHD1 inhibits HIV-1 infection in human myeloid cells and can be counteracted by the Vpx protein of HIV-2 and the SIVsm lineage. However, HIV-1 and its ancestor SIVcpz do not encode a Vpx protein and HIV-1 has not evolved a mechanism to overcome SAMHD1-mediated restriction. Here we show that the co-evolution of primate SAMHD1 and lentivirus Vpx leads to the loss of the vpx gene in SIVcpz and HIV-1. We found evidence for positive selection of SAMHD1 in orangutan, gibbon, rhesus macaque, and marmoset, but not in human, chimpanzee and gorilla that are natural hosts of Vpx-negative HIV-1, SIVcpz and SIVgor, respectively, indicating that vpx drives the evolution of primate SAMHD1. Ancestral host state reconstruction and temporal dynamic analyses suggest that the most recent common ancestor of SIVrcm, SIVmnd, SIVcpz, SIVgor and HIV-1 was a SIV that had a vpx gene; however, the vpx gene of SIVcpz was lost approximately 3643 to 2969 years ago during the infection of chimpanzees. Thus, HIV-1 could not inherit the lost vpx gene from its ancestor SIVcpz. The lack of Vpx in HIV-1 results in restricted infection in myeloid cells that are important for antiviral immunity, which could contribute to the AIDS pandemic by escaping the immune responses.     

Evolutionary and functional analyses of the interaction between the myeloid restriction factor SAMHD1 and the lentiviral Vpx protein

SAMHD1 has recently been identified as an HIV-1 restriction factor operating in myeloid cells. As?a countermeasure, the Vpx accessory protein from HIV-2 and certain lineages of SIV have evolved to antagonize SAMHD1 by inducing its ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent degradation. Here, we show that SAMHD1 experienced strong positive selection episodes during primate evolution that occurred in?the Catarrhini ancestral branch prior to the separation between hominoids (gibbons and great apes) and Old World monkeys. The identification of SAMHD1 residues under positive selection led to mapping the Vpx-interaction domain of SAMHD1 to its C-terminal region. Importantly, we found that while SAMHD1 restriction activity toward HIV-1 is evolutionarily maintained, antagonism of SAMHD1 by Vpx is species-specific. The distinct evolutionary signature of SAMHD1 sheds light on the development of its antiviral specificity.     

SAMHD1 Inhibits LINE-1 Retrotransposition by Promoting Stress Granule Formation

The SAM domain and HD domain containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) inhibits retroviruses, DNA viruses and long interspersed element 1 (LINE-1). Given that in dividing cells, SAMHD1 loses its antiviral function yet still potently restricts LINE-1, we propose that, instead of blocking viral DNA synthesis by virtue of its dNTP triphosphohydrolase activity, SAMHD1 may exploit a different mechanism to control LINE-1. Here, we report a new activity of SAMHD1 in promoting cellular stress granule assembly, which correlates with increased phosphorylation of eIF2α and diminished eIF4A/eIF4G interaction. This function of SAMHD1 enhances sequestration of LINE-1 RNP in stress granules and consequent blockade to LINE-1 retrotransposition. In support of this new mechanism of action, depletion of stress granule marker proteins G3BP1 or TIA1 abrogates stress granule formation and overcomes SAMHD1 inhibition of LINE-1. Together, these data reveal a new mechanism for SAMHD1 to control LINE-1 by activating cellular stress granule pathway.     

Elimination of Aicardi–Goutières syndrome protein SAMHD1 activates cellular innate immunity and suppresses SARS-CoV-2 replication

The lack of antiviral innate immune responses during severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections is characterized by limited production of interferons (IFNs). One protein associated with Aicardi–Goutières syndrome, SAMHD1, has been shown to negatively regulate the IFN-1 signaling pathway. However, it is unclear whether elevated IFN signaling associated with genetic loss of SAMHD1 would affect SARS-CoV-2 replication. In this study, we established in vitro tissue culture model systems for SARS-CoV-2 and human coronavirus OC43 infections in which SAMHD1 protein expression was absent as a result of CRISPR–Cas9 gene KO or lentiviral viral protein X–mediated proteosomal degradation. We show that both SARS-CoV-2 and human coronavirus OC43 replications were suppressed in SAMHD1 KO 293T and differentiated THP-1 macrophage cell lines. Similarly, when SAMHD1 was degraded by virus-like particles in primary monocyte-derived macrophages, we observed lower levels of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. The loss of SAMHD1 in 293T and differentiated THP-1 cells resulted in upregulated gene expression of IFNs and innate immunity signaling proteins from several pathways, with STAT1 mRNA being the most prominently elevated ones. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 replication was significantly increased in both SAMHD1 WT and KO cells when expression and phosphorylation of STAT1 were downregulated by JAK inhibitor baricitinib, which over-rode the activated antiviral innate immunity in the KO cells. This further validates baricitinib as a treatment of SARS-CoV-2–infected patients primarily at the postviral clearance stage. Overall, our tissue culture model systems demonstrated that the elevated innate immune response and IFN activation upon genetic loss of SAMHD1 effectively suppresses SARS-CoV-2 replication.     

Unmasking immune sensing of retroviruses: Interplay between innate sensors and host effectors

Retroviruses can selectively trigger an array of innate immune responses through various PRR. The identification and the characterization of the molecular basis of retroviral DNA sensing by the DNA sensors IFI16 and cGAS has been one of the most exciting developments in viral immunology in recent years. DNA sensing by these cytosolic sensors not only leads to the initiation of the type I interferon (IFN) antiviral response and the induction of the inflammatory response, but also triggers cell death mechanisms including pyroptosis and apoptosis in retrovirus-infected cells, thereby providing important insights into the pathophysiology of chronic retroviral infection. Host restriction factors such as SAMHD1 and Trex1 play important roles in regulating innate immune sensing, and have led to the idea that innate immune defense and host restriction actually converge at different levels to determine the outcome of retroviral infection. In this review, we discuss the sensing of retroviruses by cytosolic DNA sensors, the relevance of host factors during retroviral infection, and the interplay between host factors and the innate antiviral response in different cell types, within the context of two human pathogenic retroviruses – human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) and human T cell-leukemia virus type I (HTLV-1).