Metabolic design in the amino-acid-producing bacteriumCorynebacterium glutamicum

The Gram-positive bacteriumCorynebacterium glutamicum is used for the industrial production of amino acids,e.g. ofl-glutamate andl-lysine. By cloning and expressing the various genes of thel-lysine pathway inC. glutamicum we could demonstrate that an increase of the flux ofl-4-aspartaldehydate tol-lysine could be obtained in strains with increased dihydro-dipicolinate synthase activity. Recently we detected that inC. glutamicum two pathways exist for the synthesis ofdl-2,6-diaminopimelate andl-lysine. Mutants defective in one pathway are still able to synthesize enoughl-lysine for growth but thel-lysine secretion is reduced to 50–70%. Using NMR-spectroscopy we could calculate how much of thel-lysine secreted into the medium is synthesizedvia the one and the other pathway. Amplification of the feedback-inhibition-insensitive-homoserine dehydrogenase and homoserine kinase in a highl-lysine-overproducing strain made it possible to channell of the carbon flow from the intermediate 4-aspartaldehydate toward homoserine, resulting in a high accumulation ofl-threonine. For a further flux froml-threonine tol-isoleucine the allosteric control of threonine dehydratase was eliminated. Dedicated to Dr. Z. Vaněk on the occasion of his 70th birthday Presented at theIUMS Congresses '94-7th International Congress of Bacteriology and Applied Microbiology Division, Prague, July 3–8, 1994 (Bacteriological Symposium BS-12Regulation of Microbial Product Overproduction).     

Selection ofRhizopus strains forl(+)-lactic acid andγ-linolenic acid production

The production ofl(+)-lactic acid and formation ofγ-linolenic acid by 50Rhizopus strains growing on saccharidic substrates were investigated. Formation of acids was observed on solid cultivation media but mainly during submerged fermentation. Strains with the highest selectivity of bothl(+)-lactic acid production andγ-linolenic acid formation were tested in a laboratory fermenter. The best producer was treated by UV irradiation to increase the fatty acid content in the biomass, especially that ofγ-linolenic acid. The conversion of 10% saccharidic substrate by this newly prepared strainRhizopus arrhizus CCM 8109 results in more than 95% of theoretical yield ofl(+)-lactic acid and permits a volume productivity of 0.4 gγ-linolenic acid per liter.     

Ornithine dissimilation byTreponema denticola

Treponema denticola convertedl-ornithine, a product ofl-arginine catabolism, to putrescine via a decarboxylation reaction and to proline via a deamination reaction. Ornithine decarboxylation byT. denticola extracts was stimulated by pyridoxal 5′-phosphate. In the absence of pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, (NH₄)₂SO₄-fractionated extracts converted ornithine to proline and ammonia. This activity was not stimulated by α-keto acids, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide or ADP. Neither ornithine δ-transaminase (l-ornithine: 2-oxoacid aminotransferase, EC 2.6.1.13) nor Δ¹ reductase [l-proline: NAD(P) 5-oxidoreductase, EC 1.5.1.2.] activity was detectable in cell extracts. These results indicate that formation of proline from ornithine inT. denticola is catalyzed by an enzyme system analogous to the ornithine cyclase (deaminating) ofClostridium sporogenes. Exogenous ornithine inhibited the growth ofT. denticola. Thus, in addition to generating putrescine and proline, the ornithine dissimilatory pathways may serve to prevent accumulation of inhibitory concentrations of ornithine in the spirochete's environment.     

Detection and characterization of anS-adenosyl-l-methionine: Flavonoid 7-O-methyltransferase from leaves ofPrunus x yedoensis matsum. with special reference to prunetrin formation

An enzyme,S-adenosyl-l-methionine: flavonoid 7-O-methyltransferase (F7OMT), catalyzing the transfer of the methyl group fromS-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) to the 7 position of sophoricoside (5, 7, 4′-trihydroxyisoflavone 4′-O-glucoside) and some of the other flavonoids, was detected in extracts from leaves ofPrunus x yedoensis, and it was partially purified (about 203-fold) by a combination of gel filtration and ion-exchange column chromatographies. F7OMT was isolated as a soluble enzyme with a pH optimun of 7.5 in K-phosphate buffer. The molecular mass of F7OMT, which had an isoelectric point at pH 4.1, was estimated by elution from a column of Sephadex G-100 to be about 36 kDa. The activity of F7OMT was stimulated by 14 mM 2-Co²⁺ and reagents that react with sulfhydryl groups. The apparentKm values for sophoricoside, its aglycone genistein (5, 7, 4′-trihydroxyisoflavone) and quercetin were 1.49, 2.19 and 1.89 μM, respectively. The apparentKm value for SAM as methyl donor was 2.08 mM. The specificity of F7OMT for methyl acceptors was not strict; flavonols, flavanones and flavanonols in addition to isoflavones served as methyl acceptor. An examination ofP. x yedoensis leaves during spring and autumn showed variations in the activities of F7OMT and UDP-glucose: isoflavone 4′-O-glucosyltransferase (I4′ GT). The activities of F7OMT and I4′GT increased in enlarging leaf tissues and then markedly declined when the leaves approached maturation. In autumn leaves F7OMT activity was scarcely detected, but a small peak of I4′GT activity was observed during autumnal reddening.     

Larval and pupal parasites ofLymantria dispar and notes on parasites of otherLymantriidae [Lep.] in Poland 1975

Larvae and pupae ofLymantria dispar (L.) were collected periodically from infestations on Linden trees at Nieborów near Skierniewice and at Alexandrowa, south of Poznan, Poland during May–July 1975. The following parasites were recovered:Braconidae: Apanteles liparidis (Bouché),A. melanoscelus (Ratzeburg),A. porthetriae Muesebeck,Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael);Ichneumonidae: Coccygomimus instigator (F.),Hyposoter tricoloripes (Viereck),Phobocampe n. sp.,P. disparis (Viereck);Tachinidae: Blepharipa pratensis (Meigen),Blondelia nigripes (Fallén),Carcelia separata (Rondani),Compsilura concinnata (Meigen),Parasetigena silvestris (Robineau-Desvoidy),Palexorista sp. Similar but less extensive collections were made of larvae ofOrgyia antiqua (L.). These yieldedApanteles sp.,A. melanoscelus, Tramosema rostrale (Brischke),Meloborus sp.,B. nigripes andP. silvestris; larvae ofLeucoma salicis (L.) yieldedA. melanoscelus andMeteorus versicolor (Wesmael). OnlyBlondelia sp. was recovered from the few larvae ofPorthesia similis (Fuessly) collected.

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Résumé Des chenilles et des chrysalides deLymantria dispar (L.) ont été ramassées périodiquement en Pologne de mai à juillet 1975 dans les peuplements de tilleuls infestés, à Nieboróv près de Skierniewice et à Alexandrowa, au sud de Poznan. Les parasites obtenus ont été les suivants: lesBraconidae: Apanteles liparidis (Bouché),A. melanoscelus (Ratzeburg),A. porthetriae Muesebeck,Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael); lesIchneumonidae: Coccygomimus instigator (F.),Hyposoter tricoloripes (Viereck),Phobocampe n. sp.,P. disparis (Viereck); lesTachinidae: Blepharipa pratensis (Meigen),Blondelia nigripes (Fallén),Carcelia separata (Rondani),Compsilura concinnata (Meigen),Parasetigena silvestris (Robineau-Desvoidy), etPalexorista sp. Des collectes du même type mais moins importantes de chenilles d’Orgyia antiqua (L.) ont permis d’obtenir les parasites suivants:Apanteles sp.,A. melanoscelus. Tranosema rostrale (Brischke),Meloborus sp.,B. nigripes, etP. silvestris. Des chenilles deLeucoma salicis (L.) ont donnéA. melanoscelus etMeteorus versicolor (Wesmael). SeulBlondelia sp. a été obtenu à partir de quelques chenilles dePorthesia similis (Fuessly).

     

Different affinities of the α- and β-anomers ofD-glucose,D-mannose andD-xylose for the glucose uptake system of baker’s yeast

A recording technique for measuring the sugar uptake by cell suspensions using a polarimeter is described. The method makes it possible to calculate the uptake rates of the α-and β-anomers. The constitutive monosaccharide transport system ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae andSaccharomyces fragilis exhibits a higher affinity for the α-anomers ofd-glucose,d-manose andd-xylose than for the corresponding β-anomers, this resulting in a preferential uptake of the α-anomers from a mixture. The α-anomer ofd-xylose is preferred both during influx and efflux. The membrane transport ofd-xylose inSaccharomyces cerevisiae is not associated with a change of the anomer configuration. The facilitated diffusion system appears to possess a regulatory role for the utilization ofd-glucose andd-mannose in both yeast species investigated.     

Differential effects of amino acid analogs on growth and heterocyst differentiation in two nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae

Effects of a few amino acid analogs on growth and heterocyst differentiation have been studied in two nitrogen-fixing species ofAnabaena. All the analogs except α-methyl-dl-aspartic acid inhibited growth. Exposure ofAnabaena doliolum, todl-5-fluorotryptophan anddl-p-fluorophenylalanine caused pronounced fragmentation of filaments into single cells. At low concentrations (0.01 mM), α-methyl-dl-aspartic acid stimulated growth of the strain ofA. doliolum as well as the strain of the second (unidentified)Anabaena species. Ethionine,dl-p-fluorophenylalanine,dl-5-fluorotryptophan, and canavanine blocked heterocyst differentiation, whereas α-methyl-dl-aspartic acid, α-methyl-dl-methionine,N-o-nitrophenylsulfenyl-l-tryptophan, norleucine, andS-2-aminoethyl-l-cysteine did not show any significant effect. Treatment with 7-azatryptophan,dl-β-hydroxynorvaline,l-methionine-dl-sulfoximine,l-methionine sulfone, and β-2-thienyl-dl-alanine led to a twofold increase in heterocyst frequency. Possible modes of action of the analogs in growth inhibition and changes in heterocyst frequency are discussed.     

The influence of some inhibitors on the formation of caffeic acid in cultures ofPerilla cell suspensions

A cell suspension culture, prepared fromPerilla frutescens var.crispa callus induced by Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D, 1.0 ml/l) and kinetin (0.1 mg/l), contained caffeic acid derivatives as the phenolic components. Fresh and dry weights of the cells increased exponentially for about 11 days after transfer to a fresh medium. The contents of caffeic acid and protein also reached a maximum on the 11th day, but α-amino nitrogen phenylalanine and tyrosine continued to increase in amount until the 20th to 23rd day. Caffeic acid formation in the cells was increased by lowering the concentration of 2,4-D. The administration ofl-2-aminooxy-3-phenylpropionic acid (l-AOPP), 2-aminooxyacetic acid (AOA) andN-(phosphonomethyl)glycine (glyphosate) to the cells inhibited caffeic acid formation to a large extent. An 80% inhibition of caffeic acid formation was caused by 10⁻⁴Ml-AOPP whereas phenylalanine and tyrosine contents of the cells became 7.5 and 2.3 times higher at thisl-AOPP concentration than those in the control. An 85% inhibition of caffeic acid formation was achieved at 10⁻³M glyphosate concentration, while 10⁻³M AOA inhibited caffeic acid formation by 95% and also growth rate by 80%. The influence of inhibitors on caffeic acid formation is discussed in relation to the level of α-amino nitrogen, particularly aromatic amino acids, in the cell suspension cultures.     

Parasites,predators and other arthropods associated withMusca domestica and other flies breeding in bovine manure

The species of flies breeding in bovine manure, their parasites and predators as well as other associated arthropods in 3 localities in and near Bangalore are recoreded. The flies areMusca domestica L.,Musca pattoni Austen,Stomoxys calcitrans L.,Physiphora aenea F.,Physiphora demandata F.,Sargus metallinus F.,Sepsis thoracica R.-D.,Sepsis nitens Wiedemann,Sphaerocera scabricula Hal, andLeptocera (Coproica) hirtula Rondani. Four species of hymenopterous pupal parasites of these flies have been obtained:Spalangia cameroni Perkins from pupae ofM. domestica, M. pattoni, S. calcitrans, P. aenea andP. demandata; Spalangia endius Walker from pupae ofM. domestica, M. pattoni andS. calcitrans; Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis from pupae ofM. domestica andS. calcitrans; andDirhinus trichiophthalmus Masi from pupae ofSargus metallinus F. Percentage parasitism of fly puparia in field samples was noted. Four species ofHister andAleochara puberula Klug feeding on various immature stages ofM. domestica, 2 species of scarabaeid beetles, 2 species of ants and a pseudoscorpion were also found in the manure. The importance of biotic regulatory factors in the control of flies is discussed.

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Résumé Dans 3 localités de Bangalore ou proches de cette ville, on a inventorié les espèces de mouches vivant dans le fumier de vache, leurs parasites et prédateurs ainsi que d'autres arthropodes associés. Les mouches récoltées sont:Musca domestica L.,Musca pattoni Austen,Stomoxys calcitrans L.,Physiphora aenea F.,Physiphora demandata F.,Sargus metallinus F.,Sepsis thoracica R-D.,Sepsis nitens Wiedemann,Sphaerocera scabricula Hal. etLeptocera (Coproica) hirtula Rondani. Quatre espèces d'hyménoptères parasites des pupes ont été obtenues de ces mouches:Spalangia cameroni Perkins deM. domestica, M. pattoni, S. calcitrans, P. aenea etP. demandata: Spalangia endius Walker deM. domestica, M. pattoni etS. calcitrans, P. aenea etP. demandata; Spalangia endius Walker trans; etDirhinus trichiophthalmus Masi deSargus metallinus F. On a noté le taux de parasitisme des nymphes dans les conditions naturelles. Quatre espèces deHister etAleochara puberula Klug s'attaquant aux divers stades non imaginaux deM. domestica, 2 espèces de scarabeides, 2 espèces de fourmis et un pseudoscorpion ont été également trouvés dans le fumier. L'importance de ces facteurs biotiques dans la régulation des populations de mouches est discutée.

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Paper presented at the seminar on utilization of farm wastes for rural industrial growth, National Dairy Research Institute, Bangalore, 31 st December, 1975.

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This paper is published with the permission of the Director-General, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi     

Enzymic synthesis ofL-Lysine fromDL-α-Amino-ε-caprolactam by new microbial strains

The production of L-lysine fromDL-α-amino-ε-caprolactam (DL-ACL) by new strains producingL-α-amino-ε-caprolactamase and aminocaprolactam racemase is described. Optimal conditions for hydrolysis ofL-ACL byCryptococcus sp. and for racemization of ACL by cells of a strain isolated in nature and identified asPseudomonas sp. were determined. Synthesis ofL-α-amino-ε-caprolactamase is induced byDL-ACL orL-lysine with the same effectivity. A positive effect of phosphates (potassium salts) on reduction of the induction lag was detected, the synthesis of this enzyme was found to be repressed by glucose and some possibilities of the reversion of this repressive effect were demonstrated. Under conditions optimal for the production of both enzymes a quantitative theoretical conversion of 10 % aqueousDL-ACL toL-lysine by a mixture of native cells in a mass ratio of 1: 2 (producer of ACL-hydrolase to producer of ACL-racemase) occurred in 8 h at 40 °C and pH 8.0     

The estimation of a bivariate fitness function from two samples taken from a population

Summary The fitness of animals subjected to natural selection can be defined as the probability of surviving selection for a given interval of time, or some convenient multiple of this. If the fitness is related to some measurable variablesX, Y, Z,… then the relationship is expressed mathematically in the fitness functionw(x, y, z,…) and this function can be estimated by comparing the joint distribution ofX, Y, Z,… in samples taken before and after selection. In an earlier paper (Manly, 1975) the problems involved in estimating a fitness function of one variable were discussed. In the present paper various methods for estimating a bivariate fitness function are proposed and compared on some semiartificial sample data. It is concluded that either a generalized version ofO’Donald’s (1968) method of moments or a weighted multiple regression method will be most satisfactory. Alternative methods involving assumptions of normality will need to be used with great care.     

Physical aspects of organic evolution

The system composed of species of living organisms and their environment evolves under a stream of available energy from the sun. The differential survival of the components depends on the degree of success of each in securing its share of energy from this stream. This type of problem is familiar from the study of physicochemical systems in which the distribution and change in distribution of matter among specified components is examined in its relation to parameters of state. But whereas it is characteristic of physicochemical systems commonly considered that structure and mechanism play at most a subordinate role, in the study of organic evolution the structure and mechanical properties of the components, on which their aptitude for capturing energy depends, play the dominant role. Address delivered before the Symposium on Mathematical Biology held during the meeting of the A.A.A.S. in Chicago, December 26–27, 1947. Other papers presented at the Symposium are also being published inThe Bulletin. Those include: Rapoport, Anatol and Shimbel, Alfonso. 9, 169, 1947; Culbertson, J. T.10, 31, 1948; Rapoport, Anatol and Shimbel, Alfonso.10, 41, 1948; Hearon, John Z.10, 175, 1948; Morales, Manuel F. and Smith, Robert E.10, 191, 1948. For technical reasons the papers are not published in the same order as they were presented. A complete list of the papers presented at the Symposium on Mathematical Biology, together with abstracts is published inBiometrics,4, No. 2, 1948.Editor.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Melanopsis</Emphasis> from Al-Qarn,Jordan Valley (Gastropoda: Cerithioidea)

Fossil species ofMelanopsis from a freshwater formation in the Jordan Valley (near Al-Qarn) were investigated and the deposits containing these species are formally described as Al-Qarn Formation. Four species were found:Melanopsis buccinoidea Olivier,M. tchernovi Heller & Sivan,M. costata Olivier andM. aaronsohni Blanckenhorn.Melanopsis costata was represented by two groups, “stepped” and “non-stepped”, the latter differing in its lower figurativity index. Intermediates were found betweenM. buccinoidea andM. tchernovi; they may be hybrids. TheMelanopsis assemblage bridges the faunal gap, in the Jordan Valley, between the 2 Ma lake of ‘Erq el Ahmar on the one hand and the 0.8–1.7 Ma lake of ‘Ubeidiya on the other. This suggests an early Pleistocene age of about 1.8 million years for the Al-Qarn Formation.     

Metabolism ofl-proline toN-acetyl-d-glucosamine during germ tube formation ofCandida albicans

The metabolism ofl-proline toN-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc) during germ tube formation ofCandida albicans (C. albicans) ATCC 1002 was studied. In uptake experiments, 6.9 nmol ofl-[¹⁴C]proline were taken up by 1×10⁶ cells during 3 h of incubation at 37°C. The percentage of germ tube formation was 94 under the same condition. The presence of GlcNAc reduced the uptake ofl-proline to 3.0 nmol. The percentage of germ tube formation was 95 in the presence and absence of GlcNAc. The [³H]GlcNAc uptake was 3.0 nmol and was constant whetherl-proline was present or not. After the preparation of a chitin fraction from germ tubes that were labeled withl-[¹⁴C]proline, the radioactivity froml-proline was detected in the glucosamine (GlcN) fraction by thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The metabolism ofl-proline to GlcNAc in chitin during germ tube formation was confirmed in this experiment.     

Field observations on impact of egg parasiteTelenomus remus [Hym.: Scelionidae] on tobacco caterpillar,Spodoptera litura [Lep.: Noctuidae] in tobacco nurseries in Andhra Pradesh,India

The tobacco caterpillar,Spodoptera litura F. is a major pest in the tobacco nurseries causing damage by defoliation. Inundative releases were carried out with 650,000 parasites from 1st July, 1974 to 30th November, 1976. This paper reports the effectiveness from 1976 to 1979 of the parasite in reducing the population of tobacco caterpillar.Telenomus remus Nixon was found significantly effective in reducing the pest population at the peak of infestation in the site of release as compared to control nurseries where no parasites were released. However, the difference inSpodoptera population between the site of release and control was minimal during the last 1979 nursery season which suggests the necessity of inundative releases ofT. remus after every 2 years for effectively checking the population ofS. litura in tobacco nurseries.

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Résumé La noctuelle du tabac,Spodoptera litura F. est un ravageur très important des pépinières de tabac du fait de ses défoliations. On a procédé à des lachers inondatifs de 650.000 parasites du 1^er juillet 1874 au 30 novembre 1976. Cette note indique l'action du parasite entre 1976 et 1979 dans la réduction des populations de chenilles du tabac. On a constaté queTelenomus remus Nixon a une activité significative dans la réduction des populations du ravageur au moment du maximum d'infestation dans le lieu de lacher par rapport aux pépinières témoins sans introduction de parasites. Cependant la différence des niveaux de population entre le lieu de lacher et le terrain a été minimum lors de la dernière période de plantation en pépinière en 1979, ce qui suggère la nécessité d'effectuer tous les 2 ans des lachers inondatifs deT. remus pour lutter efficacement contreSpodoptera dans les pépinières de tabac.

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Paper presented at the 4th Tobacco Symposium held at Rajahmundry-533 105, India, 19–22 Jan. 1981.     

A new species ofFumana (Cistaceae) from Rif, Morocco

A new species ofFumana (Dunal) Spach subgenusFumana, F. fontqueri, is described from the region of Rif, Morocco. Notes on its morphology, ecology, distribution and taxonomic relationships are presented. It differs fromF. procumbens (Dunal) Gren. etGodr. andF. baetica Güemes, by the indument of the stem, the disposition of pedicels, and the size of the flowers.     

Lipopolysaccharide ofRhodospirillum salinarum 40: structural studies on the core and lipid A region

The structural elucidation of lipid A of the cell wall lipopolysaccharide (LPS) ofRhodospirillum salinarum 40 by chemical methods and laser desorption mass spectrometry revealed the presence of a mixed lipid A composed of three different 1,4 bisphosphorylated β(1→6)-linked backbone hexosaminyl-hexosamine disaccharides, i.e. those composed of GlCN→GlcN, 2,3-diamino-2,3-dideoxy-d-Glc-(DAG)→DAG, and DAG→GlcN. Lipid A ofR. salinarum contained preferentially 3-OH-18:0 and 3-OH-14:0 as amide-linked andcisΔ¹¹-18:1 and c19:0 as ester-linked fatty acids. The mass spectra of the liberated acyl-oxyacyl residues proved the concomitant presence of 3-O-(cisΔ¹¹-18:1)-18:0 and 3-O-(c19:0)-14:0 as the predominating diesters in this mixed lipid A. The glycosidically linked and the ester-linked phosphate groups of the backbone disaccharide were neither substituted by ethanolamine phosphorylethanolamine, nor by 4-amino-4-deoxy-l-arabinose, in contrast to most of the enterobacterial lipid As. In the core oligosaccharide fraction, a HexA (1→4)HexA(1→5)Kdo-trisaccharide was identified by methylation analysis. The terminal HexA (hexuronic acid) is possibly 4-OMe-GalA, a component described here as an LPS constituent for the first time. LPS ofR. salinarum showed a lethality in C57BL/10 ScSN (LPS-responder)-mice) of an order of 10⁻¹–10⁻² of that reported forSalmonella abortus equi LPS, and it was also capable of inducing TNFα and IL6 in macrophages of C57BL/10ScSN mice.     

Gymnoascus verticillatus smith

Summary The type specimen ofGymnoascus verticillatus Smith was studied and is described as the type of a new, monotypic genus,Actinodendron. The new genus is characterized by the formation of brown to dark colored ascocarps bearing brown appendages with verticels of short branchlets. Ascospores ofA. verticillatum (Smith)Orr &Kuehn are pale brown and almost discoid. Additional specimens of this species are reported.     

Effect of growth rate on the production of<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-proline in the fed-batch culture of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Corynebacterium acetoacidophilum</Emphasis>

Corynebacterium acetoacidophilum RYU3161 was cultivated in al-histidine-limited fed-batch culture. To investigate the effect of cell growth on thel-proline production, 5l fed-batch culture was performed using an exponential feeding rate to obtain the specific growth rates (μ) of 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.1 h⁻¹. The results show that the highest production ofl-proline was obtained at μ=0.04 h⁻¹. The specificl-proline production rate (Q_p) increased proportionally as a function of the specific growth rate, but decreased after it revealed the maximum value at μ=0.08 h⁻¹. Thus, the highest productivity ofl-proline was 1.66 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹ at μ=0.08 h⁻¹. The results show that the production of L-proline inC. acetoacidophilum RYU3161 has mixed growth-associated characteristics.     

Flagellation and taxonomy ofAcetobacter andAcetomonas

Summary Leifson's findings, that motile, acetate-oxidizing acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter) have peritrichous flagella, and that motile, non-acetate oxidizing ones (Acetomonas) have polar flagella, of notably short wavelength, are fully confirmed and photographically illustrated. It is not confirmed, however, that the peritrichous flagella ofAcetobacter are always of “orthodox” type with a wavelength of about 2.9 μ, nor that they always tend to be few in number. In one strain ofA. aceti they were numerous, and the wavelength was as short (1.4 μ) as that considered byLeifson to be uniquely confined to the polar flagella ofAcetomonas. Furthermore the polar flagella of the latter genus seem not always to be multitrichous, strains having been found with only a single polar flagellum.