Fragility of Erythrocytes from Chicks and Rats Fed Dilauryl Succinate and Related Compounds

Susceptibility to hydrogen peroxide of the erythrocytes from chicks and rats fed dilauryl succinate and related compounds with and without supplementation of dl-α-tocopheryl acetate was determined.

Dilauryl succinate, lauryl alcohol, n-decyI alcohol, myristyl alcohol, and lauraldehyde were confirmed to make the erythrocytes from the chicks fragile. Supplemented dl-α-tocopheryl acetate of 200 mg per kg of diet completely prevented the hemolysis induced by these compounds. Dilauryl succinate also makes the rat’s erythrocytes fragile and supplemented dl-α-tocopheryl acetate prevented the hemolysis of the rats, but ethoxyquin was not. The symptoms of encephalomalacia in the chick is preceded by increased hemolysis value of the erythrocytes, and this hemolysis value dropped after the appearance of encephalomalacia.     

Nutritive Value of Succinic Acid and Di-ethyl Succinate for Poultry Feed

Experiments were conducted for 4 or 8 weeks to examine the nutritive value of succinic acid and di-ethyl succinate as energy source for poultry. At the dietary level of 5% or lower, response of the chicks to succinic acid corresponded exactly with its caloric value, i.e. 2.99 kcal/g and no more, suggesting that succinic acid is hopeful as energy source if the price be reasonable economically.

Succinic acid at the dietary level higher than 5% and di-ethyl succinate at 5% level retarded the growth of chicks significantly, mainly due to poor appetite.     

Interrelationship between Dilauryl Succinate Feeding and Nutritional Encephalomalacia in Starting Chicks

Various levels of dilauryl succinate with or without additional d-α-tocopheryl acetate and of diethyl succinate were fed to chicks for 4 weeks to examine the interrelationship between the esters and nutritional encephalomalacia.

Chicks fed dilauryl succinate at the level higher than 3% died with lesions in the cerebellum. The lesions were prevented by the supplementation of 25 mg or more of d-α-tocopheryl acetate per kg of diet. Median lethal dietary level for males of meat-type and egg-type chicks at 3 weeks of age was 6.3 and 6.0%, respectively. That for females of meat-type at 3 weeks of age was 9.0%, suggesting that males were more sensitive than females. Diethyl succinate did not induce encephalomalacia.     

Availability of Energy in Esters of Aliphatic Acids and Alcohols by Growing Chicks

Biological availability of 106 esters of alcohols and aliphatic mono-, di- and tri-carboxylic acids and diethylene glycol succinate was compared by the mini-test with chicks. Chicks can utilize methyl esters of saturated fatty acids of carbon chain from 10 to 14, ethyl esters of those from 9 to 12, propyl caprate, n-butyl esters of those from 8 to 12, n-amyl esters of those from 6 to 12, n-hexyl n-butyrate and i-vaterate, and n-octyl and n-decyl acetates. Only 3 dicarboxylates, i.e. di-octyl and di-lauryl succinates and di-methyl cis-cyclopropane-l,2-dicarboxylate, were available among the dicarboxylates tested. Availability of ethyl esters of succinic, fumaric and citric, acid was unexpectedly low.     

Absorption of Succinate Diesters of Medium-Chain Fatty Alcohols Having Ability to Induce Nutritional Encephalomalacia in Starting Chicks

Succinate diesters of medium-chain fatty alcohols (C₆, C₈, C₁₀ C₁₂) was prepared to be studied on their ability to induce nutritional encephalomalacia in starting chicks and on the mechanism of their hydrolysis, absorption, and transport in chicks, using dilauryl succinate as positive control which possesses strong ability to induce encephalomalacia. It was revealed that all the succinate diesters used in this experiment, i.e., dilauryl succinate, monodecyl-monolauryl succinate, monooctyl-monolauryl succinate, monohexyl-monolauryl succinate, didecyl succinate, dioctyl succinate, and dihexyl succinate had ability to induce encephalomalacia in starting chicks. It was observed that succinate diesters were hydrolysed into monoesters and free alcohols mainly in the region between jej unum and ileum, and absorbed to the portal vein in the form of monoester and free alcohol, not in intact form as diester, and transported to the liver. The possible proposal that monoesters will be most important compound for the induction of encephalomalacia is discussed.     

Evaluation of Nutritive Value of Glycol Esters as Energy Source for Growing Chicks and Rats

Nutritive value of 4 glycol esters, i.e. ethanediol diacetate, 1,2-propanediol diacetate, 1,3-butanediol diacetate and 1,3-butanediol dioctylate, was estimated biologically by feeding the esters to growing chicks and rats. Energy in the esters taken by both chicks and rats was well utilized, though feed intake of the diets containing the esters at high level tended to decrease. Bitter taste of the esters was suspected to be related to low appetite. The acetates were somewhat volatile and released free acetic acid in the diet during storage. These properties of the acetates makes their use for dietary energy source difficult in practical condition.     

Effect of Alcohols,Aldehydes and their Derivatives to Induce Nutritional Encephalomalacia in Starting Chicks

n-Decyl (C₁₀), undecyl (C₁₁), lauryl (C₁₂) and myristyl (C₁₄) alcohols induced nutritional encephalomalacia, when fed to one-day-old White Leghorn male chicks for 3 weeks, while n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈), n-nonyl (C₉), cetyl (C₁₆) and stearyl (C₁₈) alcohols did not. Esters of the former group, i.e. n-decyl acetate, lauryl stearate and dilauryl succinate, and aldehydes corresponding to the former group, i.e. n-decyl aldehyde and lauraldehyde, also had the ability to induce encephalomalacia. The disease can be completely prevented by dietary supplementation of dl-β-tocopheryl acetate. Median lethal dietary level of n-decyl and lauryl alcohols and lauraldehyde was estimated to be 20, 18, and 12% respectively.     

The adrenocortical stress-response of Black-legged Kittiwake chicks in relation to dietary restrictions

In this study we examined hormonal responses of Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissatridactyla) chicks to experimental variations in energy content and nutritional quality (low or high lipid to protein ratio, LPR) of their food. Starting at the age of 10 days, chicks were fed either high or low LPR fish at 30, 50, 70 and 100% of ad libitum energy intake. After 20 days of treatment, chicks were exposed to a standardized acute handling and restraint stress protocol, where a baseline sample was taken immediately after taking a chick from the nest, and three additional blood samples were taken at intervals up to 50 min. Testosterone and corticosterone titres in plasma were measured via radioimmunoassay. We found that baseline testosterone levels were not significantly affected by the experimental treatments. Food-restricted chicks had elevated baseline and acute stress-induced levels of corticosterone compared to chicks fed ad libitum. An elevation of circulating levels of corticosterone in energetically stressed individuals was further magnified by low nutritional quality of food. Baseline and acute stress-induced corticosterone levels of chicks were negatively correlated with their fat reserves. We conclude that the physiological condition of Black-legged Kittiwake chicks can be assessed reliably by measuring circulating levels of corticosterone. We discuss short- and long-term effects of elevated corticosterone secretion in food-stressed nest-bound chicks. Accepted: 13 April 1999     

Nutritive Value of 1,2-Propanediol Di-laurate,Di-lauryl Succinate and 1,3-Butanediol by Calves

Procedure of bioassay for chicks was applied to ruminants. Calves of about 8-week-old were fed the same but restricted amount of basal diet and graded levels of corn starch or test materials. The feeding conditions was so adjusted that body weight gain of calves from 1st to 6th week was in proportion to dietary energy supply. Digestive ability of the calves was not disturbed and growth was smooth in the feeding conditions. All of the 3 samples tested were suggested to be available by calves, although palatability of di-lauryl succinate was low. Reliability of the estimate was discussed.     

Comparative fuel metabolism in Gentoo and King Penguins: adaptation to brief versus prolonged fasting

To compare fuel utilization in large birds adapted to brief or prolonged fasting, protein and lipid utilization were quantified in the Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua) and the King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonica). The inshore feeder Gentoo Penguin fasts for only a few days in its colony, while King Penguin chicks starve for several months in the subantarctic winter and male King Penguins starve for 5–6 weeks at the beginning of their breeding cycle. After an initial decrease in both daily body mass loss and nitrogen excretion during the first days of food deprivation, these two parameters thereafter stabilized at low values. At that time, protein utilization accounted for 15% of total energy expenditure in Gentoo Penguins and only 6% in King Penguin chicks during winter, the remainder (85% and 94%, respectively) being provided by fat oxidation. Similar percentages in fuel metabolism as seen in chicks during winter were reached in fasting adult King Penguins and spring chicks. However, a seasonal adaptation occurs in fasting chicks because energy expenditure is lower during winter. As previously described in starved mammals, the effectiveness in protein sparing could be related to the initial adiposity of the birds: the larger the fat stores (about 9% and 30% in Gentoo Penguins and winter chicks of King Penguins, respectively), the longer the fast duration and the better the level of protein conservation.     

Metabolism of Serine in Growing Rats and Chicks at Various Dietary Protein Levels

The metabolic fate of the carbon skeleton of l-serine-U-¹⁴C has been investigated, in vivo and in vitro, in growing rats and chicks fed the diets with various protein calories percents (PC%) at 410 kcal of metabolizable energy.

The incorporation of ¹⁴C into body protein at 12 hr after the injection of serine-¹⁴C was about 49% of the injected dose in rats fed the 10 or 15 PC % diet, though the value was reduced in rats fed lower and higher protein diets. The ¹⁴CO₂ production was smaller in rats fed the 10 and 15 PC% diet, and it showed an inverse pattern to that of the ¹⁴C incorporation into body protein. Urinary excretion of ¹⁴C was higher in rats fed 10 and higher PC% diets, whose growth rate and net body protein retention were maximum.

In contrast to the case of rats, the incorporation of ¹⁴C into body protein of chicks at 6 hr after the injection was rather reduced in the 15 PC% group. The proportion of ¹⁴C excreted as uric acid was remarkably increased above the 10 PC% group, and about 19% of the injected dose was recovered in the 50 PC% group.

The catabolic rate of serine in the liver slices of rats and chicks was increased by high protein diets.

These results support the concept that the nutritional significance of metabolism of the carbon skeleton of serine in growing rats and chicks is different from each other, especially at high protein diets.     

Energy-linked reactions in hypothyroid rat liver submitochondrial vesicles.

Processes in submitochondrial vesicles obtained from the liver mitochondria of hypothyroid rats were compared at 25–30° with those from normal rats. Hypothyroidism did not alter the rates of oxidation of succinate or β-hydroxybutyrate, or energy-independent transhydrogenation of pyridine nucleotides. Energy-dependent transhydrogenation supported either by added ATP or by succinate oxidation was doubled in the vesicles of hypothyroid rats, whereas ATP-supported reversed electron-flow was unchanged. Hormone injection corrected the abnormal rate. Since submitochondrial vesicles phosphorylate ADP slowly at 30° in hypothyroidism (5), these data suggest that the thyroid state controls the use rather than the supply of available energy potential.     

The respiration and oxidative phosphorylation of the brain mitochondria in rats with different types of behavior]

Respiration and oxidative phosphorylation of brain mitochondria were studied in outbred rats with different types of behaviour in open-field test and in forced swimming test. It was found that in rats with "active" type of behaviour (with high locomotor activity and low level of depressiveness) the brain mitochondria have at succinate oxidation a higher rate of respiration in active metabolic state and in presence of uncoupler 2,4-DNP, and a higher rate of ADP phosphorylation than in rats with "passive" type of behaviour (with low locomotor activity and high and moderate levels of depressiveness). Thus rats with active type of behaviour have a higher succinate oxidase activity than rats with passive type of behaviour. It is supposed that revealed differences in brain energy metabolism may affect the dominance of certain type of behaviour.     

Biological Assay of Available Energy with Growing Chicks

Miniaturized bioassay technique, mini-test, was developed to estimate biologically available energy of a sample of only 5~50 g. Chicks were previously starved to keep body size minimum, then given either standard diets of three energy levels or test diets containing 5% of the sample for 6 days. Available energy of the sample was estimated on the standard curve showing linear relationship between dietary energy level and response of the chicks on the standard diets.

Reliability of the estimate by this mini-test was discussed based on linearity of the standard curve, 95% confidence interval of the estimate and available energy of 2 known carbohydrates estimated by this mini-test.     

Bile and the absorption of strontium and iron

1. Strontium absorption was studied in vivo with loops of ileum in rachitic chicks and found to be increased by vitamin D(3), bile salts and sodium lauryl sulphate. 2. Bile salts and sodium lauryl sulphate rendered strontium soluble in butanol-benzene (1:1, v/v). 3. Bile was not concerned in the absorption of iron in rats from its water-soluble form, ferrous sulphate. 4. Ligation of the bile ducts in rats caused a decrease in the absorption of iron presented as its sparingly soluble phosphate. 5. The effect of bile on cation absorption is discussed.     

Nutritive Value of Sweet Potato as Carbohydrate Source in Poultry Feed

Chicks were fed on diets containing 23% of protein with various levels of energy from 60 to 75%. Total digestible nutrient is used to show the dietary energy level. The relationship between body weight gain (y) of chicks of 4 weeks fed with standard diets and dietary energy level (x) can be shown as:

By substitution of y of chicks fed on unknown diet, x of the diet can be obtained.

With this principle, it was found that the total digestible nutrients of raw and cooked sweet potato were 47% and 65%, respectively. The former is about 3/4 of the value previously estimated by Morimoto. Results of the determination of metabolizable energy of the test diets endorse the reliability of this conclusion.     

Cytochemical research on cysts of the sarcosporidian Sarcocystis bovicanis. II. Oxidation-reduction enzymes

By the means of light-microscopic cytological enzymatic methods, the presence of several enzymes (NAD.H and NADP.H-tetrazolium reductases, in addition to alcohol, succinate, isocitrate, glucose-6-phosphate, beta-hydroxybutyrate and glutamate dehydrogenases) has been studied in the tissue cysts of S. bovicanis. A mixed character of oxidative metabolism in the cyst stages is suggested, the involvement of gluconeogenesis being proposed. Neither beta-hydroxybutyrate nor alcohol dehydrogenase activity was demonstrated indicating the absence or a very low rate of lipid metabolism, and suggesting that the process of glycolysis may end with malate formation. From the low activity level of succinate dehydrogenases it is concluded that the citric acid cycle plays presumably a secondary role, if at all, in the energy supply of the cyst stages. Also, a low activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases is pointed out. Thus, it is proposed that glycolysis may be primary, if not the only, oxidative pathway in the cyst stages.     

An implication of novel methodology to study pancreatic acinar mitochondria under in situ conditions

Mitochondria maintain numerous energy‐consuming processes in pancreatic acinar cells, yet characteristics of pancreatic mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in native conditions are poorly studied. Besides, it is not known which type of solution is most adequate to preserve functions of pancreatic mitochondria in situ. Here we propose a novel experimental protocol suitable for in situ analysis of pancreatic mitochondria metabolic states. Isolated rat pancreatic acini were permeabilized with low doses of digitonin. Different metabolic states of mitochondria were examined in KCl‐ and sucrose‐based solutions using Clark oxygen electrode. Respiration of digitonin‐treated, unlike of intact, acini was substantially intensified by succinate or mixture of pyruvate plus malate. Substrate‐stimulated respiration rate did not depend on solution composition. In sucrose‐based solution, oligomycin inhibited State 3 respiration at succinate oxidation by 65.4% and at pyruvate plus malate oxidation by 60.2%, whereas in KCl‐based solution, by 32.0% and 36.1%, respectively. Apparent respiratory control indices were considerably higher in sucrose‐based solution. Rotenone or thenoyltrifluoroacetone severely inhibited respiration, stimulated by pyruvate plus malate or succinate, respectively. This revealed low levels of non‐mitochondrial oxygen consumption of permeabilized acinar cells. These results suggest a stronger coupling between respiration and oxidative phosphorylation in sucrose‐based solution. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adult Female Rats Defend “Appropriate” Energy Intake after Adaptation to Dietary Energy

Objective: To determine if adult female rats adapt to lower and higher dietary energy density. Research Methods and Procedures: Study 1 compared high‐fat (56%), high‐energy density (HD) (21.6 kJ/g) and high‐fat (56%), low‐energy density (LD) (16.0 kJ/g) diets before surgery (two groups, 2 weeks, n = 16) and after surgery [ovariectomy (O) Sham (S); 2 × 2 factorial, n = 8; 6 weeks]. The second study (no surgery) compared high‐fat (60.0%), high‐energy (22.0 kJ/g) and low‐fat (10.0%), low‐energy (15.1 kJ/g) diets (n = 8). Results: In study 1, food intake was similar for the first 2 weeks, but rats on the LD diet consumed less energy, gained less weight, and had lower nonfasted serum leptin (all p < 0.0001) than rats on the HD diet. After surgery, rats on the LD and HD diets had similar weight gain, but rats on the LD diet consumed more food (p < 0.0001) and less energy (p < 0.009). O rats consumed more food and gained more weight (p < 0.0001) than S rats. Results from study 2 were similar to those from study 1. Discussion: The results demonstrated that O and S surgery rats and rats with no surgery adjust their food intake to defend a level of energy intake. This defense only occurred after a 2‐week adaptation period. The major differences in final body weights and abdominal fat resulted from the initial 2 weeks before adaptation to energy density. Rats fed higher‐energy diets seemed to “settle” at a higher level of adiposity, and rats fed lower‐energy diets consumed more food to increase energy consumption.     

Response of chicks to two diets of differing energy levels under conditions of brooding with or without supplemental heat

A 2×2 factorial experiment was conducted to determine the performance and certain physiological parameters of 200 day-old chicks fed diets containing either 2600 or 3000 kcal metabolizable energy (ME) per kilogram for a period of 28 days under conditions of brooding with or without supplemental heat in a hot humid tropical area. The results indicated that within each dietary energy level, there was no significant difference in growth rates of chicks brooded with or without supplemental heat, however, the high energy diet significantly (P<0.01) promoted greater weight gains than the low energy diet. Brooding chicks with supplemental heat and with the high energy diet, decreased feed intake and improved feed conversion efficiency. Chicks brooded without supplemental heat consumed significantly (P<0.01) less water than those brooded with heat, irrespective of the dietary energy level. Mortality and blood glucose levels were not affected by the heat and dietary energy treatments. Thyroid weight expressed as percentage of body weight, haemoglobin and hematocrit values were significantly (P<0.01) higher for chicks brooded without supplemental heat. On the other hand, dietary energy levels did not exert any effect on these physiological parameters. No significant heat and dietary energy level interaction effects were noted on all the parameters considered under this trial.