A Second Actin-Like MamK Protein in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 Encoded Outside the Genomic Magnetosome Island

Magnetotactic bacteria are able to swim navigating along geomagnetic field lines. They synthesize ferromagnetic nanocrystals that are embedded in cytoplasmic membrane invaginations forming magnetosomes. Regularly aligned in the cytoplasm along cytoskeleton filaments, the magnetosome chain effectively forms a compass needle bestowing on bacteria their magnetotactic behaviour. A large genomic island, conserved among magnetotactic bacteria, contains the genes potentially involved in magnetosome formation. One of the genes, mamK has been described as encoding a prokaryotic actin-like protein which when it polymerizes forms in the cytoplasm filamentous structures that provide the scaffold for magnetosome alignment. Here, we have identified a series of genes highly similar to the mam genes in the genome of Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1. The newly annotated genes are clustered in a genomic islet distinct and distant from the known magnetosome genomic island and most probably acquired by lateral gene transfer rather than duplication. We focused on a mamK-like gene whose product shares 54.5% identity with the actin-like MamK. Filament bundles of polymerized MamK-like protein were observed in vitro with electron microscopy and in vivo in E. coli cells expressing MamK-like-Venus fusions by fluorescence microscopy. In addition, we demonstrate that mamK-like is transcribed in AMB-1 wild-type and ΔmamK mutant cells and that the actin-like filamentous structures observed in the ΔmamK strain are probably MamK-like polymers. Thus MamK-like is a new member of the prokaryotic actin-like family. This is the first evidence of a functional mam gene encoded outside the magnetosome genomic island.     

Comparison of 61 Sequenced Escherichia coli Genomes

Escherichia coli is an important component of the biosphere and is an ideal model for studies of processes involved in bacterial genome evolution. Sixty-one publically available E. coli and Shigella spp. sequenced genomes are compared, using basic methods to produce phylogenetic and proteomics trees, and to identify the pan- and core genomes of this set of sequenced strains. A hierarchical clustering of variable genes allowed clear separation of the strains into clusters, including known pathotypes; clinically relevant serotypes can also be resolved in this way. In contrast, when in silico MLST was performed, many of the various strains appear jumbled and less well resolved. The predicted pan-genome comprises 15,741 gene families, and only 993 (6%) of the families are represented in every genome, comprising the core genome. The variable or ‘accessory’ genes thus make up more than 90% of the pan-genome and about 80% of a typical genome; some of these variable genes tend to be co-localized on genomic islands. The diversity within the species E. coli, and the overlap in gene content between this and related species, suggests a continuum rather than sharp species borders in this group of Enterobacteriaceae.     

The Bacillus subtilis Nucleotidyltransferase Is a tRNA CCA-Adding Enzyme

There has been increased interest in bacterial polyadenylation with the recent demonstration that 3′ poly(A) tails are involved in RNA degradation. Poly(A) polymerase I (PAP I) of Escherichia coli is a member of the nucleotidyltransferase (Ntr) family that includes the functionally related tRNA CCA-adding enzymes. Thirty members of the Ntr family were detected in a search of the current database of eubacterial genomic sequences. Gram-negative organisms from the β and γ subdivisions of the purple bacteria have two genes encoding putative Ntr proteins, and it was possible to predict their activities as either PAP or CCA adding by sequence comparisons with the E. coli homologues. Prediction of the functions of proteins encoded by the genes from more distantly related bacteria was not reliable. The Bacillus subtilis papS gene encodes a protein that was predicted to have PAP activity. We have overexpressed and characterized this protein, demonstrating that it is a tRNA nucleotidyltransferase. We suggest that the papS gene should be renamed cca, following the notation for its E. coli counterpart. The available evidence indicates that cca is the only gene encoding an Ntr protein, despite previous suggestions that B. subtilis has a PAP similar to E. coli PAP I. Thus, the activity involved in RNA 3′ polyadenylation in the gram-positive bacteria apparently resides in an enzyme distinct from its counterpart in gram-negative bacteria.     

A novel strategy for the identification of genomic islands by comparative analysis of the contents and contexts of tRNA sites in closely related bacteria

We devised software tools to systematically investigate the contents and contexts of bacterial tRNA and tmRNA genes, which are known insertion hotspots for genomic islands (GIs). The strategy, based on MAUVE-facilitated multigenome comparisons, was used to examine 87 Escherichia coli MG1655 tRNA and tmRNA genes and their orthologues in E.coli EDL933, E.coli CFT073 and Shigella flexneri Sf301. Our approach identified 49 GIs occupying ~1.7 Mb that mapped to 18 tRNA genes, missing 2 but identifying a further 30 GIs as compared with Islander [Y. Mantri and K. P. Williams (2004), Nucleic Acids Res., 32, D55–D58]. All these GIs had many strain-specific CDS, anomalous GC contents and/or significant dinucleotide biases, consistent with foreign origins. Our analysis demonstrated marked conservation of sequences flanking both empty tRNA sites and tRNA-associated GIs across all four genomes. Remarkably, there were only 2 upstream and 5 downstream deletions adjacent to the 328 loci investigated. In silico PCR analysis based on conserved flanking regions was also used to interrogate hotspots in another eight completely or partially sequenced E.coli and Shigella genomes. The tools developed are ideal for the analysis of other bacterial species and will lead to in silico and experimental discovery of new genomic islands.     

Novel Conserved Genotypes Correspond to Antibiotic Resistance Phenotypes of E. coli Clinical Isolates

Current efforts to understand antibiotic resistance on the whole genome scale tend to focus on known genes even as high throughput sequencing strategies uncover novel mechanisms. To identify genomic variations associated with antibiotic resistance, we employed a modified genome-wide association study; we sequenced genomic DNA from pools of E. coli clinical isolates with similar antibiotic resistance phenotypes using SOLiD technology to uncover single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) unanimously conserved in each pool. The multidrug-resistant pools were genotypically similar to SMS-3-5, a previously sequenced multidrug-resistant isolate from a polluted environment. The similarity was evenly spread across the entire genome and not limited to plasmid or pathogenicity island loci. Among the pools of clinical isolates, genomic variation was concentrated adjacent to previously reported inversion and duplication differences between the SMS-3-5 isolate and the drug-susceptible laboratory strain, DH10B. SNPs that result in non-synonymous changes in gyrA (encoding the well-known S83L allele associated with fluoroquinolone resistance), mutM, ligB, and recG were unanimously conserved in every fluoroquinolone-resistant pool. Alleles of the latter three genes are tightly linked among most sequenced E. coli genomes, and had not been implicated in antibiotic resistance previously. The changes in these genes map to amino acid positions in alpha helices that are involved in DNA binding. Plasmid-encoded complementation of null strains with either allelic variant of mutM or ligB resulted in variable responses to ultraviolet light or hydrogen peroxide treatment as markers of induced DNA damage, indicating their importance in DNA metabolism and revealing a potential mechanism for fluoroquinolone resistance. Our approach uncovered evidence that additional DNA binding enzymes may contribute to fluoroquinolone resistance and further implicate environmental bacteria as a reservoir for antibiotic resistance.     

Nickel-Resistance Determinants in Acidiphilium sp. PM Identified by Genome-Wide Functional Screening

Acidiphilium spp. are conspicuous dwellers of acidic, metal-rich environments. Indeed, they are among the most metal-resistant organisms; yet little is known about the mechanisms behind the metal tolerance in this genus. Acidiphilium sp. PM is an environmental isolate from Rio Tinto, an acidic, metal-laden river located in southwestern Spain. The characterization of its metal resistance revealed a remarkable ability to tolerate high Ni concentrations. Here we report the screening of a genomic library of Acidiphilium sp. PM to identify genes involved in Ni resistance. This approach revealed seven different genes conferring Ni resistance to E. coli, two of which form an operon encoding the ATP-dependent protease HslVU (ClpQY). This protease was found to enhance resistance to both Ni and Co in E. coli, a function not previously reported. Other Ni-resistance determinants include genes involved in lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and the synthesis of branched amino acids. The diversity of molecular functions of the genes recovered in the screening suggests that Ni resistance in Acidiphilium sp. PM probably relies on different molecular mechanisms.     

Comparative study of the marR genes within the family Enterobacteriaceae

marR genes are members of an ancient family originally identified in Escherichia coli. This family is widely distributed in archaea and bacteria. Homologues of this family have a conserved winged helix fold. MarR proteins are involved in non-specific resistance systems conferring resistance to multiple antibiotics. Extensive studies have shown the importance of MarR proteins in physiology and pathogenicity in Enterobacteria, but little is known about their origin or evolution. In this study, all the marR genes in 43 enterobacterial genomes representing 14 genera were identified, and the phylogenetic relationships and genetic parameters were analyzed. Several major findings were made. Three conserved marR genes originated earlier than Enterobacteriaceae and a geneloss event was found to have taken place in Yersinia pestis Antiqua. Three functional genes, rovA, hor, and slyA, were found to be clear orthologs among Enterobacteriaceae. The copy number of marR genes in Enterobacteriaceae was found to vary from 2 to 11. These marR genes exhibited a faster rate of nucleotide substitution than housekeeping genes did. Specifically, the regions of marR domain were found to be subject to strong purifying selection. The phylogenetic relationship and genetic parameter analyses were consistent with conservation and specificity of marR genes. These dual characters helped MarR to maintain a conserved binding motif and variable C-terminus, which are important to adaptive responses to a number of external stimuli in Enterobacteriaceae.     

Systematic Nomenclature for GGDEF and EAL Domain-Containing Cyclic Di-GMP Turnover Proteins of Escherichia coli

In recent years, Escherichia coli has served as one of a few model bacterial species for studying cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) signaling. The widely used E. coli K-12 laboratory strains possess 29 genes encoding proteins with GGDEF and/or EAL domains, which include 12 diguanylate cyclases (DGC), 13 c-di-GMP-specific phosphodiesterases (PDE), and 4 “degenerate” enzymatically inactive proteins. In addition, six new GGDEF and EAL (GGDEF/EAL) domain-encoding genes, which encode two DGCs and four PDEs, have recently been found in genomic analyses of commensal and pathogenic E. coli strains. As a group of researchers who have been studying the molecular mechanisms and the genomic basis of c-di-GMP signaling in E. coli, we now propose a general and systematic dgc and pde nomenclature for the enzymatically active GGDEF/EAL domain-encoding genes of this model species. This nomenclature is intuitive and easy to memorize, and it can also be applied to additional genes and proteins that might be discovered in various strains of E. coli in future studies.     

Complete genome sequence and comparative genome analysis of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O127:H6 strain E2348/69

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) was the first pathovar of E. coli to be implicated in human disease; however, no EPEC strain has been fully sequenced until now. Strain E2348/69 (serotype O127:H6 belonging to E. coli phylogroup B2) has been used worldwide as a prototype strain to study EPEC biology, genetics, and virulence. Studies of E2348/69 led to the discovery of the locus of enterocyte effacement-encoded type III secretion system (T3SS) and its cognate effectors, which play a vital role in attaching and effacing lesion formation on gut epithelial cells. In this study, we determined the complete genomic sequence of E2348/69 and performed genomic comparisons with other important E. coli strains. We identified 424 E2348/69-specific genes, most of which are carried on mobile genetic elements, and a number of genetic traits specifically conserved in phylogroup B2 strains irrespective of their pathotypes, including the absence of the ETT2-related T3SS, which is present in E. coli strains belonging to all other phylogroups. The genome analysis revealed the entire gene repertoire related to E2348/69 virulence. Interestingly, E2348/69 contains only 21 intact T3SS effector genes, all of which are carried on prophages and integrative elements, compared to over 50 effector genes in enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157. As E2348/69 is the most-studied pathogenic E. coli strain, this study provides a genomic context for the vast amount of existing experimental data. The unexpected simplicity of the E2348/69 T3SS provides the first opportunity to fully dissect the entire virulence strategy of attaching and effacing pathogens in the genomic context.     

Screening of Metagenomic and Genomic Libraries Reveals Three Classes of Bacterial Enzymes That Overcome the Toxicity of Acrylate

Acrylate is produced in significant quantities through the microbial cleavage of the highly abundant marine osmoprotectant dimethylsulfoniopropionate, an important process in the marine sulfur cycle. Acrylate can inhibit bacterial growth, likely through its conversion to the highly toxic molecule acrylyl-CoA. Previous work identified an acrylyl-CoA reductase, encoded by the gene acuI, as being important for conferring on bacteria the ability to grow in the presence of acrylate. However, some bacteria lack acuI, and, conversely, many bacteria that may not encounter acrylate in their regular environments do contain this gene. We therefore sought to identify new genes that might confer tolerance to acrylate. To do this, we used functional screening of metagenomic and genomic libraries to identify novel genes that corrected an E. coli mutant that was defective in acuI, and was therefore hyper-sensitive to acrylate. The metagenomic libraries yielded two types of genes that overcame this toxicity. The majority encoded enzymes resembling AcuI, but with significant sequence divergence among each other and previously ratified AcuI enzymes. One other metagenomic gene, arkA, had very close relatives in Bacillus and related bacteria, and is predicted to encode an enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase, in the same family as FabK, which catalyses the final step in fatty-acid biosynthesis in some pathogenic Firmicute bacteria. A genomic library of Novosphingobium, a metabolically versatile alphaproteobacterium that lacks both acuI and arkA, yielded vutD and vutE, two genes that, together, conferred acrylate resistance. These encode sequential steps in the oxidative catabolism of valine in a pathway in which, significantly, methacrylyl-CoA is a toxic intermediate. These findings expand the range of bacteria for which the acuI gene encodes a functional acrylyl-CoA reductase, and also identify novel enzymes that can similarly function in conferring acrylate resistance, likely, again, through the removal of the toxic product acrylyl-CoA.     

Efflux systems in Serratia marcescens

A widespread bacterium Serratia marcescens (family Enterobacteriaceae) is an opportunistic pathogen and exhibits multiple drug resistance. Active removal of antibiotics and other antimicrobials from the cells by efflux systems is one of the mechanisms responsible for microbial resistance to these compounds. Among enterobacteria, efflux systems of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica ser. Typhimurium have been studied most extensively. Few efflux systems that belong to different families have been reported for S. marcescens. In this review, we analyzed available literature about S. marcescens efflux systems and carried out the comparative analysis of the genes encoding the RND type systems in different Serratia species and in other enterobacteria. Bioinformatical analysis of the S. marcescens genome allowed us to identify the previously unknown efflux systems based on their homology with the relevant E. coli genes. Identification of additional efflux systems in S. marcescens genome will promote our understanding of the physiology of these bacteria, will detect new molecular mechanisms of resistance, and will reveal their resistance potential.     

Signatures of optimal codon usage in metabolic genes inform budding yeast ecology

Reverse ecology is the inference of ecological information from patterns of genomic variation. One rich, heretofore underutilized, source of ecologically relevant genomic information is codon optimality or adaptation. Bias toward codons that match the tRNA pool is robustly associated with high gene expression in diverse organisms, suggesting that codon optimization could be used in a reverse ecology framework to identify highly expressed, ecologically relevant genes. To test this hypothesis, we examined the relationship between optimal codon usage in the classic galactose metabolism (GAL) pathway and known ecological niches for 329 species of budding yeasts, a diverse subphylum of fungi. We find that optimal codon usage in the GAL pathway is positively correlated with quantitative growth on galactose, suggesting that GAL codon optimization reflects increased capacity to grow on galactose. Optimal codon usage in the GAL pathway is also positively correlated with human-associated ecological niches in yeasts of the CUG-Ser1 clade and with dairy-associated ecological niches in the family Saccharomycetaceae. For example, optimal codon usage of GAL genes is greater than 85% of all genes in the genome of the major human pathogen Candida albicans (CUG-Ser1 clade) and greater than 75% of genes in the genome of the dairy yeast Kluyveromyces lactis (family Saccharomycetaceae). We further find a correlation between optimization in the GALactose pathway genes and several genes associated with nutrient sensing and metabolism. This work suggests that codon optimization harbors information about the metabolic ecology of microbial eukaryotes. This information may be particularly useful for studying fungal dark matter—species that have yet to be cultured in the lab or have only been identified by genomic material.

Bias toward codons that match the tRNA pool is robustly associated with high gene expression in diverse organisms, suggesting that codon optimization could be used in a reverse ecology framework to identify ecologically relevant genes. This study finds that this is indeed the case for 329 species of budding yeasts, suggesting that codon optimization harbors information about the metabolic ecology of microbial eukaryotes.     

Genomic Comparison of Translocating and Non-Translocating Escherichia coli

Translocation of E. coli across the gut epithelium can result in fatal sepsis in post-surgical patients. In vitro and in vivo experiments have identified the existence of a novel pathotype of translocating E. coli (TEC) that employs an unknown mechanism for translocating across epithelial cells to the mesenteric lymph nodes and the blood stream in both humans and animal models. In this study the genomes of four TEC strains isolated from the mesenteric lymph nodes of a fatal case of hospitalised patient (HMLN-1), blood of pigs after experimental shock (PC-1) and after non-lethal haemorrhage in rats (KIC-1 and KIC-2) were sequenced in order to identify the genes associated with their adhesion and/or translocation. To facilitate the comparison, the genomes of a non-adhering, non-translocating E. coli (46–4) and adhering but non-translocating E. coli (73–89) were also sequenced and compared. Whole genome comparison revealed that three (HMLN-1, PC-1 and KIC-2) of the four TEC strains carried a genomic island that encodes a Type 6 Secretion System that may contribute to adhesion of the bacteria to gut epithelial cells. The human TEC strain HMLN-1 also carried the invasion ibeA gene, which was absent in the animal TEC strains and is likely to be associated with host-specific translocation. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the four TEC strains were distributed amongst three distinct E. coli phylogroups, which was supported by the presence of phylogroup specific fimbriae gene clusters. The genomic comparison has identified potential genes that can be targeted with knock-out experiments to further characterise the mechanisms of E. coli translocation.     

Isolation and Expression of the Lysis Genes of Actinomyces naeslundii Phage Av-1

Like most gram-positive oral bacteria, Actinomyces naeslundii is resistant to salivary lysozyme and to most other lytic enzymes. We are interested in studying the lysins of phages of this important oral bacterium as potential diagnostic and therapeutic agents. To identify the Actinomyces phage genes encoding these species-specific enzymes in Escherichia coli, we constructed a new cloning vector, pAD330, that can be used to enrich for and isolate phage holin genes, which are located adjacent to the lysin genes in most phage genomes. Cloned holin insert sequences were used to design sequencing primers to identify nearby lysin genes by using whole phage DNA as the template. From partial digestions of A. naeslundii phage Av-1 genomic DNA we were able to clone, in independent experiments, inserts that complemented the defective λ holin in pAD330, as evidenced by extensive lysis after thermal induction. The DNA sequence of the inserts in these plasmids revealed that both contained the complete lysis region of Av-1, which is comprised of two holin-like genes, designated holA and holB, and an endolysin gene, designated lysA. We were able to subclone and express these genes and determine some of the functional properties of their gene products.     

The Gene for 16S rRNA Methyltransferase (ksgA) Functions as a Multicopy Suppressor for a Cold-Sensitive Mutant of Era, an Essential RAS-Like GTP-Binding Protein in Escherichia coli

Era, a Ras-like GTP-binding protein in Escherichia coli, has been shown to be essential for growth. However, its cellular functions still remain elusive. In this study, a genetic screening of an E. coli genomic library was performed to identify those genes which can restore the growth ability of a cold-sensitive mutant, Era(Cs) (E200K), at a restrictive temperature when expressed in a multicopy plasmid. Among eight suppressors isolated, six were located at 1 min of the E. coli genomic map, and the gene responsible for the suppression of Era(Cs) (E200K) was identified as the ksgA gene for 16S rRNA transmethylase, whose mutation causes a phenotype of resistance to kasugamycin, a translation initiation inhibitor. This is the first demonstration of suppression of impaired function of Era by overproduction of a functional enzyme. A possible mechanism of the suppression of the Era cold-sensitive phenotype by KsgA overproduction is discussed.