Interactions between jasmonates and ethylene in the regulation of root hair development in Arabidopsis

Root hair formation is an important model with which to study cell patterning and differentiation in higher plants. Ethylene and auxin are critical regulators of root hair development. The role of jasmonates (JAs) was examined in Arabidopsis root hair development as well as their interactions with ethylene in this process. The results have shown that both methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and jasmonic acid (JA) have a pronounced effect on promoting root hair formation. However, the effect of MeJA and JA on root hair formation was blocked by ethylene inhibitors Ag+ or aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG). The stimulatory effects of MeJA and JA were also diminished in ethylene-insensitive mutants etr1-1 and etr1-3. Furthermore, the JA biosynthesis inhibitors ibuprofen and salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) suppressed 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)-induced root hair formation, and decreased the root hairs in seedlings of the ethylene over-producing mutant eto1-1. These results suggested that JAs promote root hair formation, through an interaction with ethylene.     

Acclimative changes in root epidermal cell fate in response to Fe and P deficiency: a specific role for auxin?

Summary Root hair formation and the development of transfer cells in the rhizodermis was investigated in various existing auxinrelated mutants ofArabidopsis thaliana and in the tomato mutantdiageotropica. Wild-type Arabidopsis plants showed increased formation of root hairs when the seedlings were cultivated in Fe- or P-free medium. These extranumerary hairs were located in normal positions and in positions normally occupied by nonhair cells, e.g., over periclinal walls of underlying cortical cells. Defects in auxin transport or reduced auxin sensitivity inhibited the formation of root hairs in response to Fe deficiency completely but did only partly affect initiation and elongation of hairs in P-deficient roots. Application of the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid or the auxin analog 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid did not rescue the phenotype of the auxin-resistantaxr2 mutant under control and Fe-deficient conditions, indicating that functionalAXR2 product is required for translating the Fe deficiency signal into the formation of extra hairs. The development of extra hairs inaxr2 roots under P-replete conditions was not affected by auxin antagonists, suggesting that this process is independent of auxin signaling. In roots of tomato, growth under Fe-deficient conditions induced the formation of transfer cells in the root epidermis. Transfer cell frequency was enhanced by application of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid but was not inhibited by the auxin transport inhibitor N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid. In thediageotropica mutant, which displays reduced sensitivity to auxin, transfer cells appeared to develop in both Fe-sufficient and Fe-deficient roots. Similar to the wild type, no reduction in transfer cell frequency was observed after application of the above auxin transport inhibitor. These data suggest that auxin has no primary function in inducing transfer cell development; the formation of transfer cells, however, appears to be affected by the hormonal balance of the plants.Abbreviations ACC 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid - TIBA triiodobenzoic acid - NPA N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid - STS silver thiosulfate     

Ethylene and phosphorus availability have interacting yet distinct effects on root hair development

The hypothesis that ethylene participates in the regulation of root hair development by phosphorus availability in Arabidopsis thaliana was tested by chemically manipulating ethylene synthesis and response and with ethylene-insensitive mutants. Low phosphorus-induced root hair development could be mimicked by adding the ethylene precursor, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC), to high phosphorus media, and inhibited by adding ethylene inhibitors to low phosphorus media. Ethylene-insensitive mutants showed a reduced response to low phosphorus, indicating ethylene involvement in root hair responses to phosphorus deficiency. To dissect the nature of this involvement, the morphological and anatomical changes associated with increased root hair density were investigated. Growth in low phosphorus resulted in smaller, more numerous cortical cells, resulting in a larger number of root hair-bearing epidermal cell files. Cortical cell number was not affected by ethylene inhibitors, ACC, or mutations reducing ethylene sensitivity in roots grown with low phosphorus, indicating that ethylene does not participate in this response. The exception was the eir1 mutation, which strongly reduced this change in radial anatomy, supporting a role for polar auxin transport in this process. Trichoblast cell length was reduced by low phosphorus availability in all genotypes, but even more so for ein2-1 and ein4. The proportion of epidermal cells forming hairs and root hair length were reduced in ethylene-insensitive mutants, especially in the presence of low phosphorus. These results demonstrate multiple effects of low phosphorus from the earliest stages of root hair development, and cross-talk between ethylene and phosphorus in the control of a subset of the low phosphorus effects, concentrating on those later in development.     

Ethylene regulates lateral root formation and auxin transport in Arabidopsis thaliana

Lateral root branching is a genetically defined and environmentally regulated process. Auxin is required for lateral root formation, and mutants that are altered in auxin synthesis, transport or signaling often have lateral root defects. Crosstalk between auxin and ethylene in root elongation has been demonstrated, but interactions between these hormones in the regulation of Arabidopsis lateral root formation are not well characterized. This study utilized Arabidopsis mutants altered in ethylene signaling and synthesis to explore the role of ethylene in lateral root formation. We find that enhanced ethylene synthesis or signaling, through the eto1-1 and ctr1-1 mutations, or through the application of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), negatively impacts lateral root formation, and is reversible by treatment with the ethylene antagonist, silver nitrate. In contrast, mutations that block ethylene responses, etr1-3 and ein2-5 , enhance root formation and render it insensitive to the effect of ACC, even though these mutants have reduced root elongation at high ACC doses. ACC treatments or the eto1-1 mutation significantly enhance radiolabeled indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) transport in both the acropetal and the basipetal directions. ein2-5 and etr1-3 have less acropetal IAA transport, and transport is no longer regulated by ACC. DR5-GUS reporter expression is also altered by ACC treatment, which is consistent with transport differences. The aux1-7 mutant, which has a defect in an IAA influx protein, is insensitive to the ethylene inhibition of root formation. aux1-7 also has ACC-insensitive acropetal and basipetal IAA transport, as well as altered DR5-GUS expression, which is consistent with ethylene altering AUX1-mediated IAA uptake, and thereby blocking lateral root formation.     

The rhd6 Mutation of Arabidopsis thaliana Alters Root-Hair Initiation through an Auxin- and Ethylene-Associated Process

Root-hair initiation in Arabidopsis thaliana provides a model for studying cell polarity and its role in plant morphogenesis. Root hairs normally emerge at the apical end of root epidermal cells, implying that these cells are polarized. We have identified a mutant, rhd6, that displays three defects: (a) a reduction in the number of root hairs, (b) an overall basal shift in the site of root-hair emergence, and (c) a relatively high frequency of epidermal cells with multiple root hairs. These defects implicate the RHD6 gene in root-hair initiation and indicate that RHD6 is normally associated with the establishment of, or response to, root epidermal cell polarity. Similar alterations in the site of root-hair emergence, although less extreme, were also discovered in roots of the auxin-, ethylene-, abscisic acid-resistant mutant axr2 and the ethylene-resistant mutant etr1. All three rhd6 mutant phenotypes were rescued when either auxin (indoleacetic acid) or an ethylene precursor (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid) was included in the growth medium. The rhd6 root phenotypes could be phenocopied by treating wild-type seedlings with an inhibitor of the ethylene pathway (aminoethoxyvinylglycine). These results indicate that RHD6 is normally involved in directing the selection or assembly of the root-hair initiation site through a process involving auxin and ethylene.     

Phosphate availability alters architecture and causes changes in hormone sensitivity in the Arabidopsis root system

The postembryonic developmental program of the plant root system is plastic and allows changes in root architecture to adapt to environmental conditions such as water and nutrient availability. Among essential nutrients, phosphorus (P) often limits plant productivity because of its low mobility in soil. Therefore, the architecture of the root system may determine the capacity of the plant to acquire this nutrient. We studied the effect of P availability on the development of the root system in Arabidopsis. We found that at P-limiting conditions (<50 microM), the Arabidopsis root system undergoes major architectural changes in terms of lateral root number, lateral root density, and primary root length. Treatment with auxins and auxin antagonists indicate that these changes are related to an increase in auxin sensitivity in the roots of P-deprived Arabidopsis seedlings. It was also found that the axr1-3, axr2-1, and axr4-1 Arabidopsis mutants have normal responses to low P availability conditions, whereas the iaa28-1 mutant shows resistance to the stimulatory effects of low P on root hair and lateral root formation. Analysis of ethylene signaling mutants and treatments with 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid showed that ethylene does not promote lateral root formation under P deprivation. These results suggest that in Arabidopsis, auxin sensitivity may play a fundamental role in the modifications of root architecture by P availability.     

Bacillus megaterium rhizobacteria promote growth and alter root-system architecture through an auxin- and ethylene-independent signaling mechanism in Arabidopsis thaliana

Soil microorganisms are critical players in plant-soil interactions at the rhizosphere. We have identified a Bacillus megaterium strain that promoted growth and development of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and Arabidopsis thaliana plants. We used Arabidopsis thaliana as a model to characterize the effects of inoculation with B. megaterium on plant-growth promotion and postembryonic root development. B. megaterium inoculation caused an inhibition in primary-root growth followed by an increase in lateral-root number, lateral-root growth, and root-hair length. Detailed cellular analyses revealed that primary root-growth inhibition was caused both by a reduction in cell elongation and by reduction of cell proliferation in the root meristem. To study the contribution of auxin and ethylene signaling pathways in the alterations in root-system architecture elicited by B. megaterium, a suite of plant hormone mutants of Arabidopsis, including aux1-7, axr4-1, eir1, etr1, ein2, and rhd6, defective in either auxin or ethylene signaling, were evaluated for their responses to inoculation with this bacteria. When inoculated, all mutant lines tested showed increased biomass production. Moreover, aux1-7 and eir1, which sustain limited root-hair and lateral-root formation when grown in uninoculated medium, were found to increase the number of lateral roots and to develop long root hairs when inoculated with B. megaterium. The ethylene-signaling mutants etr1 and ein2 showed an induction in lateral-root formation and root-hair growth in response to bacterial inoculation. Taken together, our results suggest that plant-growth promotion and root-architectural alterations by B. megaterium may involve auxin- and-ethylene independent mechanisms.     

A Mutation Altering Auxin Homeostasis and Plant Morphology in Arabidopsis

Many aspects of plant development are associated with changing concentrations of the phytohormone auxin. Several stages of root formation exhibit extreme sensitivities to exogenous auxin and are correlated with shifts in endogenous auxin concentration. In an effort to elucidate mechanisms regulating development of adventitious roots, an ethyl methanesulfonate-mutagenized M2 population of Arabidopsis was screened for mutants altered in this process. A recessive nuclear mutant, rooty (rty), displayed extreme proliferation of roots, inhibition of shoot growth, and other alterations suggesting elevated responses to auxin or ethylene. Wild-type Arabidopsis seedlings grown on auxin-containing media phenocopied rty, whereas rty seedlings were partially rescued on cytokinin-containing media. Analysis by gas chromatography-selected ion monitoring-mass spectrometry showed endogenous indole-3-acetic acid concentrations to be two to 17 times higher in rty than in the wild type. Dose-response assays with exogenous indole-3-acetic acid indicated equal sensitivities to auxin in tissues of the wild type and rty. Combining rty with mutations conferring resistance to auxin (axr1-3) or ethylene (etr1-1) suggested that root proliferation and restricted shoot growth are auxin effects, whereas other phenotypic alterations are due to ethylene. Four mutant alleles from independently mutagenized populations were identified, and the locus was mapped using morphological and restriction fragment length polymorphism markers to 3.9 centimorgans distal to marker m605 on chromosome 2. The wild-type RTY gene product may serve a critical role in regulating auxin concentrations and thereby facilitating normal plant growth and development.     

Stage-specific crosstalk between light, auxin, and ethylene during low-pH-induced root hair formation in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings

In the light, transfer of lettuce seedlings precultured on liquid medium at pH 6.0 to fresh medium at pH 4.0 induces root hair formation. However, no root hairs form in the dark. Here, we investigated how light induces root hair formation. Randomization of the transverse cortical microtubule (CMT) arrays which occurs in root epidermal cells in the light prior to root hair initiation was not observed in the dark. However, addition of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) induced CMT randomization and root hair formation. In these cases, CMT randomization occurred in almost the same time-dependent manner as under light. However, root hair initiation was delayed for several hours in the dark. These results suggest that light promotes CMT randomization and root hair initiation via auxin and ethylene signaling but light additionally influences root hair initiation independently of these signaling mechanisms. Furthermore, addition of a microtubule-depolymerizing drug in the dark disrupted the transverse CMT arrays and initiated root hair formation; however, root hair elongation was still suppressed. Root hairs elongated when IAA or ACC was applied with the drug. These results suggest that light also promotes root hair elongation via auxin and ethylene signaling.     

Auxin and ethylene response interactions during Arabidopsis root hair development dissected by auxin influx modulators

The plant hormones auxin and ethylene have been shown to play important roles during root hair development. However, cross talk between auxin and ethylene makes it difficult to understand the independent role of either hormone. To dissect their respective roles, we examined the effects of two compounds, chromosaponin I (CSI) and 1-naphthoxyacetic acid (1-NOA), on the root hair developmental process in wild-type Arabidopsis, ethylene-insensitive mutant ein2-1, and auxin influx mutants aux1-7, aux1-22, and double mutant aux1-7 ein2. Beta-glucuronidase (GUS) expression analysis in the BA-GUS transgenic line, consisting of auxin-responsive domains of PS-IAA4/5 promoter and GUS reporter, revealed that 1-NOA and CSI act as auxin uptake inhibitors in Arabidopsis roots. The frequency of root hairs in ein2-1 roots was greatly reduced in the presence of CSI or 1-NOA, suggesting that endogenous auxin plays a critical role for the root hair initiation in the absence of an ethylene response. All of these mutants showed a reduction in root hair length, however, the root hair length could be restored with a variable concentration of 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). NAA (10 nM) restored the root hair length of aux1 mutants to wild-type level, whereas 100 nM NAA was needed for ein2-1 and aux1-7 ein2 mutants. Our results suggest that insensitivity in ethylene response affects the auxin-driven root hair elongation. CSI exhibited a similar effect to 1-NOA, reducing root hair growth and the number of root hair-bearing cells in wild-type and ein2-1 roots, while stimulating these traits in aux1-7and aux1-7ein2 roots, confirming that CSI is a unique modulator of AUX1.     

Susceptibility to the sugar beet cyst nematode is modulated by ethylene signal transduction in Arabidopsis thaliana

Previously, we identified Arabidopsis thaliana mutant rhd1-4 as hypersusceptible to the sugar beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii. We assessed rhd1-4 as well as two other rhd1 alleles and found that each exhibited, in addition to H. schachtii hypersusceptibility, decreased root length, increased root hair length and density, and deformation of the root epidermal cells compared with wild-type A. thaliana ecotype Columbia (Col-0). Treatment of rhd1-4 and Col-0 with the ethylene inhibitors 2-aminoethoxyvinylglycine and silver nitrate and the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid suggests that the rhd1-4 hypersusceptibility and root morphology phenotypes are the result of an increased ethylene response. Assessment of known ethylene mutants further support the finding that ethylene plays a role in mediating A. thaliana susceptibility to H. schachtii because mutants that overproduce ethylene (eto1-1, eto2, and eto3) are hypersusceptible to H. schachtii and mutants that are ethylene-insensitive (etr1-1, ein2-1, ein3-1, eir1-1, and axr2) are less susceptible to H. schachtii. Because the ethylene mutants tested show altered susceptibility and altered root hair density and length, a discrimination between the effects of altered ethylene signal transduction and root hair density on susceptibility was accomplished by analyzing the ttg and gl2 mutants, which produce ectopic root hairs that result in greatly increased root hair densities while maintaining normal ethylene signal transduction. The observed normal susceptibilities to H. schachtii of ttg and g12 indicate that increased root hair density, per se, does not cause hypersusceptibility. Furthermore, the results of nematode attraction assays suggest that the hypersusceptibility of rhd1-4 and the ethylene-overproducing mutant eto3 may be the result of increased attraction of H. schachtii-infective juveniles to root exudates of these plants. Our findings indicate that rhd1 is altered in its ethylene response and that ethylene signal transduction positively influences plant susceptibility to cyst nematodes.     

The AXR1 and AUX1 genes of Arabidopsis function in separate auxin-response pathways

The recessive mutations aux1 and axr1 of Arabidopsis confer resistance to the plant hormone auxin. The axr1 mutants display a variety of morphological defects. In contrast, the only morphological defect observed in aux1 mutants is a loss of root gravitropism. To learn more about the function of these genes in auxin response, the expression of the auxin-regulated gene SAUR-AC1 in mutant and wild-type plants has been examined. It has been found that axr1 plants display a pronounced deficiency in auxin-induced accumulation of SAUR-AC1 mRNA in seedlings as well as rosette leaves and mature roots. In contrast, the aux1 mutation has a modest effect on auxin induction of SAUR-AC1. To determine if the AUX1 and AXR1 genes interact to facilitate auxin response, plants which are homozygous for both aux1 and axr1 mutations have been constructed and characterized. The two mutations are additive in their effects on auxin response, suggesting that each mutation confers resistance by a different mechanism. However, the morphology of double mutant plants indicates that there is an inter-action between the AXR1 and AUX1 genes. In mature plants, the aux1-7 mutation acts to partially suppress the morphological defects conferred by the axr1-12 mutation. This suppression is not accompanied by an increase in auxin response, as measured by SAUR-AC1 expression, suggesting that the interaction between the AUX1 and AXR1 genes is indirect.     

SOS4, a pyridoxal kinase gene,is required for root hair development in Arabidopsis

Root hair development in plants is controlled by many genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors. A number of genes have been shown to be important for root hair formation. Arabidopsis salt overly sensitive 4 mutants were originally identified by screening for NaCl-hypersensitive growth. The SOS4 (Salt Overly Sensitive 4) gene was recently isolated by map-based cloning and shown to encode a pyridoxal (PL) kinase involved in the production of PL-5-phosphate, which is an important cofactor for various enzymes and a ligand for certain ion transporters. The root growth of sos4 mutants is slower than that of the wild type. Microscopic observations revealed that sos4 mutants do not have root hairs in the maturation zone. The sos4 mutations block the initiation of most root hairs, and impair the tip growth of those that are initiated. The root hairless phenotype of sos4 mutants was complemented by the wild-type SOS4 gene. SOS4 promoter-beta-glucuronidase analysis showed that SOS4 is expressed in the root hair and other hair-like structures. Consistent with SOS4 function as a PL kinase, in vitro application of pyridoxine and pyridoxamine, but not PL, partially rescued the root hair defect in sos4 mutants. 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid treatments promoted root hair formation in both wild-type and sos4 plants, indicating that genetically SOS4 functions upstream of ethylene and auxin in root hair development. The possible role of SOS4 in ethylene and auxin biosynthesis is discussed.     

Ethylene modulates flavonoid accumulation and gravitropic responses in roots of Arabidopsis

Plant organs change their growth direction in response to reorientation relative to the gravity vector. We explored the role of ethylene in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) root gravitropism. Treatment of wild-type Columbia seedlings with the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid (ACC) reduced root elongation and gravitropic curvature. The ethylene-insensitive mutants ein2-5 and etr1-3 had wild-type root gravity responses, but lacked the growth and gravity inhibition by ACC found in the wild type. We examined the effect of ACC on tt4(2YY6) seedlings, which have a null mutation in the gene encoding chalcone synthase, the first enzyme in flavonoid synthesis. The tt4(2YY6) mutant makes no flavonoids, has elevated indole-3-acetic acid transport, and exhibits a delayed gravity response. Roots of tt4(2YY6), the backcrossed line tt4-2, and two other tt4 alleles had wild-type sensitivity to growth inhibition by ACC, whereas the root gravitropic curvature of these tt4 alleles was much less inhibited by ACC than wild-type roots, suggesting that ACC may reduce gravitropic curvature by altering flavonoid synthesis. ACC treatment induced flavonoid accumulation in root tips, as judged by a dye that becomes fluorescent upon binding flavonoids in wild type, but not in ein2-5 and etr1-3. ACC also prevented a transient peak in flavonoid synthesis in response to gravity. Together, these experiments suggest that elevated ethylene levels negatively regulate root gravitropism, using EIN2- and ETR1-dependent pathways, and that ACC inhibition of gravity response occurs through altering flavonoid synthesis.     

The Arabidopsis root hair mutants der2-der9 are affected at different stages of root hair development

Root hairs are an excellent model system to study cell developmental processes as they are easily accessible, single-celled, long tubular extensions of root epidermal cells. In a genetic approach to identify loci important for root hair development, we have isolated eight der (deformed root hairs) mutants from an ethylmethanesulfonate (EMS)-mutagenized Arabidopsis population. The der lines represent five new loci involved in root hair development and show a variety of abnormalities in root hair morphology, indicating that different root hair developmental stages are affected. A double mutant analysis with the short root hair actin2 mutant der1-2 confirmed that the der mutants are disturbed at different time points of root hair formation. Auxin and ethylene are known to be important for trichoblast cell fate determination and root hair elongation. Here, we show that they are able to suppress the phenotype of two der mutants. As the auxin- and ethylene-responsive der mutants are affected at different stages of root hair formation, our results demonstrate that the function of auxin and ethylene is not limited to cell differentiation and root hair elongation but that the two hormones are effective throughout the whole root hair developmental process.     

Ethylene directs auxin to control root cell expansion

Root morphogenesis is controlled by the regulation of cell division and expansion. We isolated an allele of the eto1 ethylene overproducer as a suppressor of the auxin-resistant mutant ibr5, prompting an examination of crosstalk between the phytohormones auxin and ethylene in control of root epidermal cell elongation and root hair elongation. We examined the interaction of eto1 with mutants that have reduced auxin response or transport and found that ethylene overproduction partially restored auxin responsiveness to these mutants. In addition, we found that the effects of endogenous ethylene on root cell expansion in eto1 seedlings were partially impeded by dampening auxin signaling, and were fully suppressed by blocking auxin influx. These data provide insight into the interaction between these two key plant hormones, and suggest that endogenous ethylene directs auxin to control root cell expansion.     

Novel software for analysis of root gravitropism: comparative response patterns of Arabidopsis wild-type and axr1 seedlings

In an earlier study (Evans, Ishikawa & Estelle 1994, Planta 194, 215-222) we used a video digitizer system to compare the kinetics of auxin action on root elongation in wild-type seedlings and seedlings of auxin response mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. We have since modified the system software to allow determination of elongation on opposite sides of vertical or gravistimulated roots and to allow continuous measurement of the angle of orientation of sequential subsections of the root during the response. We used this technology to compare the patterns of differential growth that generate curvature in roots of the Columbia ecotype and in the mutants axr1-3, axr1-12 and axr2, which show reduced gravitropic responsiveness and reduced sensitivity to inhibition by auxin. The pattern of differential growth during gravitropism differed in roots of wild-type and axr1 seedlings. In wild-type roots, initial curvature resulted from differential inhibition of elongation in the distal elongation zone (DEZ). This was followed by an acceleration of elongation along the top side of the DEZ. In roots of axr1-3, curvature resulted from differential stimulation of elongation whereas in roots of axr1-12 the response was variable. Roots of axr2 did not exhibit gravitropic curvature. The observation that the pattern of differential growth causing curvature is dramatically altered by a change in sensitivity to auxin is consistent with the classical Cholodny-Went theory of gravitropism which maintains that differential growth patterns induced by gravistimulation are mediated primarily by gravi-induced shifts in auxin distribution. The new technology introduced with this report allows automated determination of stimulus response patterns in the small but experimentally popular roots of Arabidopsis.     

Effects of glucose and ethylene on root hair initiation and elongation in lettuce (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactuca sativa</Emphasis> L.) seedlings

Root hair formation occurs in lettuce seedlings after transfer to an acidic medium (pH 4.0). This process requires cortical microtubule (CMT) randomization in root epidermal cells and the plant hormone ethylene. We investigated the interaction between ethylene and glucose, a new signaling molecule in plants, in lettuce root development, with an emphasis on root hair formation. Dark-grown seedlings were used to exclude the effect of photosynthetically produced glucose. In the dark, neither root hair formation nor the CMT randomization preceding it occurred, even after transfer to the acidic medium (pH 4.0). Adding 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic-acid (ACC) to the medium rescued the induction, while adding glucose did not. Although CMT randomization occurred when glucose was applied together with ACC, it was somewhat suppressed compared to that in ACC-treated seedlings. This was not due to a decrease in the speed of randomization, but due to lowering of the maximum degree of randomization. Despite the negative effect of glucose on ACC-induced CMT randomization, the density and length of ACC-induced root hairs increased when glucose was also added. The hair-cell length of the ACC-treated seedlings was comparable to that in the combined-treatment seedlings, indicating that the increase in hair density caused by glucose results from an increase in the root hair number. Furthermore, quantitative RT-PCR revealed that glucose suppressed ethylene signaling. These results suggest that glucose has a negative and positive effect on the earlier and later stages of root hair formation, respectively, and that the promotion of the initiation and elongation of root hairs by glucose may be mediated in an ethylene-independent manner.     

Auxin modulates the enhanced development of root hairs in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. under elevated CO(2)

Root hairs may play a critical role in nutrient acquisition of plants grown under elevated CO(2) . This study investigated how elevated CO(2) enhanced the development of root hairs in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. The plants under elevated CO(2) (800 μL L(-1)) had denser and longer root hairs, and more H-positioned cells in root epidermis than those under ambient CO(2) (350 μL L(-1)). The elevated CO(2) increased auxin production in roots. Under elevated CO(2) , application of either 1-naphthoxyacetic acid (1-NOA) or N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) blocked the enhanced development of root hairs. The opposite was true when the plants under ambient CO(2) were treated with 1-naphthylacetic acid (NAA), an auxin analogue. Furthermore, the elevated CO(2) did not enhance the development of root hairs in auxin-response mutants, axr1-3, and auxin-transporter mutants, axr4-1, aux1-7 and pin1-1. Both elevated CO(2) and NAA application increased expressions of caprice, triptychon and rho-related protein from plants 2, and decreased expressions of werewolf, GLABRA2, GLABRA3 and the transparent testa glabra 1, genes related to root-hair development, while 1-NOA and NPA application had an opposite effect. Our study suggests that elevated CO(2) enhanced the development of root hairs in Arabidopsis via the well-characterized auxin signalling and transport that modulate the initiation of root hairs and the expression of its specific genes.