Encapsidation of adenovirus 16 DNA is directed by a small DNA sequence at the left end of the genome

We have identified a DNA sequence in adenovirus type 16 which contains recognition signals for encapsidation of the viral DNA. The sequence acts in cis to direct the encapsidation of DNA from the end of the viral genome where it is located. The sequence is normally contained in the first 390–400 bp of the left end of the genome. The location was determined by analyzing a series of spontaneous mutants of Ad16 which carried reduplications of 200 to >500 bp of left end sequences at the right end of the genome, thus giving rise to enlarged inverted terminal repetitions (ITR). In plaque-purified (PP) Ad16 prototype virus the subgenomic DNA found in incomplete virus particles exclusively represents left end sequences. When the reduplication mutants were analyzed, we found that a reduplication of about 390 bp enabled subgenomic DNA molecules containing the right end to be encapsidated into incomplete particles as well. A reduplication of about 290 bp, however, did not allow subgenomic DNA containing the right end to be encapsidated. The difference in encapsidation described could not be attributed to an asymetric DNA replication in the mutants, since subgenomic DNA originating from both ends of the genome was produced in equal amounts in the infected cells. We conclude that an essential part of the encapsidation sequence must be located between 290 and 390 bp from the left end of the Ad16 genome.     

Processing of bacteriophage lambda DNA during its assembly into heads

DNA purified from bacteriophage λ added to a cell-free extract derived from induced λ lysogens can be packaged into infectious phage particles (Kaiser & Masuda, 1973). In this paper the structure of the DNA which is the substrate for in vitro packaging and head assembly is described. The active precursor is a multichromosomal polymer that contains covalently closed cohesive end sites. Neither circular or linear DNA monomers nor polymers with unsealed cohesive ends are packaged efficiently into heads. The unit length monomer is packaged when it is either contained in the interior of a polymer (both of its ends are in cos sites) or when it has a free left end and a cos site on its right. The monomer unit with a free right end is not a substrate for packaging.A procedure is given for the purification of λ DNA fragments that contain either the left or the right cohesive end. The fragments are produced by digesting λ DNA with the site-specific Escherichia coli R₁ endonuclease; the left and right ends are separated by sedimentation through a sucrose gradient. These fragments are used to construct small polymers that have a unit length λ monomer with (1) a free left end and a closed right end, (2) a free right end and a closed left end, or (3) both ends closed in cos sites.     

Mechanism of replication of human mitochondrial DNA. Localization of the 5' ends of nascent daughter strands

Human mitochondrial DNA contains two physically separate and distinct origins of DNA replication. The initiation of each strand (heavy and light) occurs at a unique site and elongation proceeds unidirectionally. Animal mitochondrial DNA is novel in that short nascent strands are maintained at one origin (D-loop) in a significant percentage of the molecules. In the case of human mitochondrial DNA, there are three distinct D-loop heavy strands differing in length at the 5' end. We report here the localization of the 5' ends of nascent daughter heavy strands originating from the D-loop region. Analyses of the map positions of 5' ends relative to known restriction endonuclease cleavage sites and 5' end nucleotides indicate that the points of initiation of D-loop synthesis and actual daughter strands are the same. In contrast, the second origin is located two-thirds of the way around the genome where light strand synthesis is presumably initiated on a single-stranded template. Mapping of 5' ends of daughter light strands at this origin relative to known restriction endonuclease cleavage sites reveals two distinct points of initiation separated by 37 nucleotides. This origin is in the same relative genomic position and shows a high degree of DNA sequence homology to that of mouse mitochondrial DNA. In both cases, the DNA region within and immediately flanking the origin of DNA replication contains five tightly clustered tRNA genes. A major portion of the pronounced DNA template secondary structure at this origin includes the known tDNA sequences.     

In vitro termination of adenovirus DNA synthesis by a soluble replication complex.

The double-stranded DNA from a soluble DNA replication complex that was labeled with deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates and completed in vitro was digested with EcoRI, Sma I, and Hpa I restriction endonucleases. All regions of the adenovirus type 2 genome were labeled in vitro, but restriction fragments derived from the ends of the DNA molecules were relatively more highly labeled than those derived from internal regions. The in vitro endogenous DNA polymerase reaction also exhibited strand-specific labeling near the molecular ends, in that restriciton fragments from the left end were labeled predominantly in the r strand and fragments from the right end were labeled predominantly in the l strand.     

Discontinuities in the DNA synthesized by an avian retrovirus

The unintegrated linear DNA synthesized in cells infected by Rous sarcoma virus is a predominantly double-stranded structure in which most of the minus-strand DNA, complementary to the viral RNA genome, is genome sized, whereas the plus-strand DNA is present as subgenomic fragments. We previously reported the application of benzoylated naphthoylated DEAE-cellulose chromatography to demonstrate that of the linear viral DNA species synthesized in quail embryo fibroblasts infected with Rous sarcoma virus greater than 99.5% contain single-stranded regions and these regions are predominantly composed of plus-strand DNA sequences (T. W. Hsu and J. M. Taylor, J. Virol. 44:47-53, 1982). We now present the following additional findings. (i) There were on the average 3.5 single-stranded regions per linear viral DNA, and these single-stranded regions could occur at many locations. (ii) With a probe to the long terminal repeat, we detected, in addition to a heterogeneous size distribution of subgenomic plus-strand DNA species, at least three prominent discrete size classes. Each of these discrete species had its own specific initiation site, but all had the same termination site. Such species were analogous to those reported by Kung et al. (J. Virol. 37: 127-138, 1981). (iii) These discrete size classes of plus-strand DNA were present not only on the major size class of linear DNA but also on a heterogeneous of slower-sedimenting species, which we have called immature linears. Our interpretation is that we have thus detected several additional sites for the initiation of plus-strand DNA. (iv) The 340-base plus-strand strong-stop DNA was only found associated with the immature linears. (v) From a size and hybridization comparison of these discrete size classes of plus-strand DNA with minus-strand DNA species, as synthesized in the endogenous reaction of melittin-disrupted virions, it was found that the putative additional initiation sites for plus-strand DNA synthesis corresponded to many of the pause sites in the synthesis of minus-strand DNA.     

Sequence specificity for the initiation of RNA-primed simian virus 40 DNA synthesis in vivo

Analysis of the nucleotide sequences at the 5' ends of RNA-primed nascent DNA chains (Okazaki fragments) and of their locations in replicating simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA revealed the precise nature of Okazaki fragment initiation sites in vivo. The primary initiation site for mammalian DNA primase was 3'-purine-dT-5' in the DNA template and the secondary site was 3'-purine-dC-5', with the 5' end of the RNA primer complementary to either the dT or dC. The third position of the initiation site was variable with a preference for dT or dA. About 81% of the available 3'-purine-dT-5' sites and 20% of the 3'-purine-dC-5' sites were used. Purine-rich sites, such as PuPuPu and PyPuPu , were excluded. The 5'-terminal ribonucleotide composition of Okazaki fragments corroborated these conclusions. Furthermore, the length of individual RNA primers was not unique, but varied in size from six to ten bases with some appearing as short as three bases and some as long as 12 bases, depending on the initiation site used. This result was consistent with the average size (9 to 11 bases) of RNA primers isolated from specific regions of the genome. Excision of RNA primers did not appear to stop at the RNA-DNA junction, but removed a variable number of deoxyribonucleotides from the 5' end of the nascent DNA chain. Finally, only one-fourth of the replication forks contained an Okazaki fragment, and the distribution of their initiation sites between the two arms revealed that Okazaki fragments were initiated exclusively (99%) on retrograde DNA templates. The data obtained at two genomic sites about 350 and 1780 bases from ori were essentially the same as that reported for the ori region (Hay & DePamphilis , 1982), suggesting that the mechanism used to synthesize the first DNA chain at ori is the same as that used to synthesize Okazaki fragments throughout the genome.     

PCR fragmentation of DNA

A method has been developed to prepare random DNA fragments using PCR. First, two cycles are carried out at 16 degrees C with the Klenow's fragment and oligonucleotides (random primers) with random 3'-sequences and the 5'-constant part containing the site for cloning with the site-specific endonuclease. The random primers can link to any DNA site, and random DNA fragments are formed during DNA synthesis. During the second cycle, after denaturation of the DNA and addition of the Klenow's fragment, the random primers can link to newly synthesized DNA strands, and after DNA synthesis single-stranded DNA fragments are produced which have a constant primer sequence at the 5'-end and a complementary to it sequence at the 3'-end. During the third cycle, the constant primer is added and double-stranded fragments with the constant primer sequences at both ends are formed during DNA synthesis. Incubation for 1 h at 37 degrees C degrades the oligonucleotides used at the first stage due to endonuclease activity of the Klenow's fragment. Then routine PCR amplification is carried out using the constant primer. This method is more advantageous than hydrodynamic methods of DNA fragmentation widely used for "shotgun" cloning.     

Structure of products of the Moloney murine leukemia virus endogenous DNA polymerase reaction.

We have investigated the process by which the single-stranded RNA genome of Moloney murine leukemia virus is copied into DNA in vitro. DNA synthesis if initiated near the 5' end of the genome, and the elongation of the growing chain occurs by a jumping mechanism whereby the DNA synthesized at the 5' end of the genome is elongated along the 3' end. Unique DNA fragments synthesized beyond the 5' end of the genome in vitro have, at their 5' and 3' ends, copies of unique sequences from the 5' and 3' ends of the genome. These flank a copy of the 49- to 60-nucleotide terminally redundant sequence. These results indicate that the terminal redundancy serves as a "bridge" to allow a DNA molecule synthesized at the 5' end of the genome to serve as a primer for synthesis from the 3' end.     

Titration of integrated simian virus 40 DNA sequences, using highly radioactive, single-stranded DNA probes.

Nick-translated simian virus 40 (SV40) [32P]DNA fragments (greater than 2 X 10(8) cpm/micrograms) were resolved into early- and late-strand nucleic acid sequences by hybridization with asymmetric SV40 complementary RNA. Both single-stranded DNA fractions contained less than 0.5% self-complementary sequences; both included [32P]-DNA sequences that derived from all regions of the SV40 genome. In contrast to asymmetric SV40 complementary RNA, both single-stranded [32P]DNAs annealed to viral [3H]DNA at a rate characteristic of SV40 DNA reassociation. Kinetics of reassociation between the single-stranded [32P]DNAs indicated that the two fractions contain greater than 90% of the total nucleotide sequences comprising the SV40 genome. These preparations were used as hybridization probes to detect small amounts of viral DNA integrated into the chromosomes of Chinese hamster cells transformed by SV40. Under the conditions used for hybridization titrations in solution (i.e., 10- to 50-fold excess of radioactive probe), as little as 1 pg of integrated SV40 DNA sequence was assayed quantitatively. Among the transformed cells analyzed, three clones contained approximately one viral genome equivalent of SV40 DNA per diploid cell DNA complement; three other clones contained between 1.2 and 1.6 viral genome equivalents of SV40 DNA; and one clone contained somewhat more than two viral genome equivalents of SV40 DNA. Preliminary restriction endonuclease maps of the integrated SV40 DNAs indicated that four clones contained viral DNA sequences located at a single, clone-specific chromosomal site. In three clones, the SV40 DNA sequences were located at two distinct chromosomal sites.     

Restriction mapping of recombinant lambda DNA molecules using pulsed field gel electrophoresis

We have integrated pulsed field gel electrophoresis with the partial digestion strategy of Smith and Birnstiel (1976, Nucleic Acids Res. 3,2387-2398) to generate a rapid and accurate method of restriction endonuclease mapping recombinant lambda DNA molecules. Use of pulsed field gels dramatically improves the accuracy of size determination and resolution of DNA restriction fragments relative to standard agarose gels. Briefly, DNA is partially digested with restriction enzymes to varying extents and then hybridized with a radiolabeled oligonucleotide which anneals specifically to one of the lambda cohesive (cos) ends, effectively end labeling only those digestion products containing that cos end. In this study, we have used an oligonucleotide hybridizing to the right cos end. DNA is then fractionated by pulsed field gel electrophoresis, the gel dried down, and cos end containing fragments visualized by autoradiography. Fragment sizes indicate the distances from the labeled cos end to each restriction site for the particular restriction enzyme employed. This procedure requires only minimal quantities of DNA and is applicable to all vectors utilizing lambda cos ends.     

DNA polymerase template switching at specific sites on the φ29 genome causes the in vivo accumulation of subgenomic φ29 DNA molecules

The accumulation of subgenomic phage φ29 DNA molecules with specific sizes was observed after prolonged infection times with delayed lysis phage mutants. Whereas the majority of the molecules had a size of 4 kb, additional DNA species were observed with sizes of 8.2, 6.5, 2.3, 2 and 1 kb. Most of the molecules were shown to originate from the right end of the linear Bacillus subtilis phage φ29 genome. The nature of the 4, 2.3, 2 and 1 kb molecules was studied. The 2 kb molecules were shown to be single-stranded self-complementary strands forming hairpin structures. The other molecules consisted of palindromic linear double-stranded DNA molecules. Most probably, the subgenomic DNA molecules were formed when the moving phage replication fork from the right origin encountered a block that induces the DNA polymerase to switch template. Once formed, the subgenomic molecules are then amplified in vivo . Determination of the centres of symmetry of the 4 and 1 kb molecules revealed that both contained the almost 16 bp perfect dyad symmetry element (DSE): 5'-TGTTtCAC-GTGgAACA-3' being a likely candidate for a protein binding site. Database analysis showed that this sequence occurs four times in the φ29 genome. In addition, the almost identical sequence 5'-TgGTTTCAC-GTGGAAtCA-3' was found once. These five DSEs are all located in the right half of the φ29 genome, and the same sequences are also present in the linear DNA of related B. subtilis phages. Most interestingly, this sequence is also found in the spoOJ gene of the B. subtilis chromosome. Recently, it has been shown that the SpoOJ protein is associated in vivo with the same DSE. As the same subgenomic φ29 DNA molecules accumulate after infection of B. subtilis spoOJ deletion strains, it is likely that, in addition to and/or independently of SpoOJ, other protein(s) bind to DSE.     

Evidence for a gapped linear duplex DNA intermediate in the replicative cycle of human and simian spumaviruses.

Two forms of linear DNAs have been found in simian (SFV1) and human (HSRV) spumaviruses: a linear duplex unsensitive to nuclease S1 and a sensitive structure with a single-stranded gap. Two nuclease S1 sensitive sites, mapping at the same position for both viruses, have been identified in the gapped structure. Using different molecular subgenomic clones of HSRV as probes in Southern blot analysis, one S1 site was localized in the 3'LTR and the other near the middle of the molecule at about 6.5 kbp from the 5' end of the viral genome. The latter site was shown to correspond to a single stranded region within the linear duplex DNA. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that the polypurine tract (PPT) usually found at the 5' boundary of the 3'LTR of retroviruses, is duplicated in HSRV at the 3' end of the pol gene, near the gap. This suggests that the synthesis of plus strand DNA is discontinuous, generating the gap.     

Colobus type C virus: molecular cloning of unintegrated viral DNA and characterization of the endogenous viral genomes of Colobus.

The unintegrated viral DNA intermediates of colobus type C virus (CPC-1) were isolated from infected human cells that were permissive for viral growth. There were two major species of DNA, linear molecules with two copies of the long terminal repeat and relaxed circles containing only a single long terminal repeat. In addition, there was a minor species (approximately 10%) composed of relaxed circles with two copies of the long terminal repeat. A restriction endonuclease map of the unintegrated DNA was constructed. The three EcoRI fragments of circular CPC-1 DNA were cloned in the EcoRI site of lambda gtWES . lambda B and then subcloned in the EcoRI site of pBR322. Using these subgenomic fragments as probes, we have characterized the endogenous viral sequences found in colobus cellular DNA. They are not organized in tandem arrays, as is the case in some other gene families. The majority of sequences detected in cellular DNA have the same map as the CPC-1 unintegrated DNA at 17 of 18 restriction endonuclease sites. There are, however, other sequences that are present in multiple copies and do not correspond to the CPC-1 map. They do not contain CPC-1 sequences either in an altered form or fused to common nonviral sequences. Instead, they appear to be derived from a distinct family of sequences that is substantially diverged from the CPC-1 family. This second family of sequences, CPC-2, is also different from the sequences related to baboon endogenous type C virus that forms a third family of virus-related sequences in the colobus genome.     

Rapid mapping of restriction sites of a DNA: restriction of agarose gel and two-dimensional analysis of end-labeled DNA.

A new two-dimensional technique for the mapping of restriction sites is presented. Linear DNA labeled at both ends is first partially digested with the restriction endonuclease for which a map is desired. Following electrophoresis of the partial digest in an agarose gel, complete digestion of the fragments in the gel matrix with a second restriction enzyme is carried out. Electrophoresis in the second dimension resolves two sets of labeled spots: one set from the left and the other from the right end. For a given band of the autoradiogram of the first dimension gel, the mobility of the band gives the size of the DNA fragment, and therefore the distance of a particular restriction site from one of the ends of the original linear DNA. The mobility of the labeled spot derived from this band in the second dimension gel allows one to distinguish whether the distance deduced above is from one end or the other. Additional information about the location of one set of restriction sites for one enzyme relative to those for a second enzyme can also be obtained using the two-dimensional method. The advantages of the technique are the small amount of DNA required and the rapidity with which many maps can be constructed from one labeled DNA. As a test of the method, maps for the HindIII and HaeIII cleavage sites of circular phage PM2 DNA have been obtained, after first converting the DNA to the linear form by digestion with HpaII.     

Localization of single-chain interruptions in bacteriophage T5 DNA I. Electron microscopic studies.

Bacteriophage T5 DNA was examined in an electron microscope after limited digestion with exonuclease III from Escherichia coli. The effect of the exonuclease treatment was to convert each naturally occurring single-chain interruption in T5 DNA into a short segment of single-stranded DNA. The locations of these segments were determined for T5st(+) DNA, T5st(0) DNA, and fragments of T5st(0) DNA generated by EcoRI restriction endonuclease. The results indicate that single-chain interruptions occurr in a variable, but nonrandom, manner in T5 DNA. T5st(+) DNA has four principal interruptions located at sites approximately 7.9, 18.5, 32.6, and 64.8% from one end of the molecule. Interruptions occur at these sites in 80 to 90% of the population. A large number of additional sites, located primarily at the ends of the DNA, contain interruptions at lower frequencies. The average number of interruptions per genome, as determined by this method, is 8. A similar distribution of breaks occurs in T5st(0) DNA, except that the 32.6% site is missing. At least one of the principal interruptions is reproducibly located within an interval of 0.2% of the entire DNA.     

Bacteriophage T7 DNA packaging. III. A "hairpin" end formed on T7 concatemers may be an intermediate in the processing reaction

An unusual left end (M-end) has been identified on bacteriophage T7 DNA isolated from T7-infected cells. This end has a "hairpin" structure and is formed at a short inverted repeat sequence centered around nucleotide 39,587 of T7, 190 base-pairs to the left of the site where a mature left end is formed on the T7 concatemer. We do not detect the companion right end that would be formed if the M-end is produced by a double-stranded cut on the T7 concatemer. This suggests that the hairpin left end may be generated from a single-stranded cut in the DNA that is used to prime rightward DNA synthesis. The formation of M-end does not require the products of T7 genes 10, 18 or 19, proteins that are essential for the formation of mature T7 ends. During infection with a T7 gene 3 (endonuclease) mutant, phage DNA synthesis is reduced and the concatemers are not processed into unit length DNA molecules, but both M-end and the mature right end are formed on the concatemer DNA. These two ends are also found associated with the large, rapidly sedimenting concatemers formed during a normal T7 infection while the mature left end is present only on unit length T7 DNA molecules. We propose that DNA replication primed from the hairpin end produced by a nick in the inverted repeat sequence provides a mechanism to duplicate the terminal repeat before DNA packaging. Packaging is initiated with the formation of a mature right end on the branched concatemer and, as the phage head is filled, the T7 gene 3 endonuclease may be required to trim the replication forks from the DNA. Concatemer processing is completed by the removal of the 190 base-pair hairpin end to produce the mature left end.     

Fragmentation of Bacillus bacteriophage phi105 DNA by complementary single-stranded DNA in the cohesive ends of the molecule.

The structure of DNA from the temperate Bacillus subtilis phage phi105 was examined by using the restriction endonuclease EcoRI and by sedimentation analysis. The DNA contains six EcoRI cleavage sites. Although eight DNA fragments were identified in the EcoRI digests, the largest of these was shown to consist of the two fragments that carry the cohesive ends of the phage DNA. In neutral gradients, the majority of whole phi105 DNA sedimented as nicked circles and the remainder as oligomers. No unit-length linear structures were detected. The associated cohesive ends could be sealed by DNA ligase from Escherichia coli and could be cleaved by S1 nuclease. On the basis of these results and previously reported studies, it appears that, as isolated from phage particles, phi105 DNA is a circular molecule that is formed from the linear structure by the association of complementary single-stranded DNA.     

A general method to cleave a known DNA sequence at any site.

We describe a new method for obtaining DNA fragments starting at a desired point where there is no recognition sequence for any known restriction endonuclease. A single-stranded DNA containing the fragment of interest is annealed to a synthetic oligonucleotide hybridizing at the 5' end of the required fragment. Then, a partially double-stranded DNA is synthesized using the Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I in the presence of the four deoxynucleoside triphosphates. The remaining single-stranded regions are removed by digestion with a single-strand nuclease, and the resulting 5' blunt-ended fragment is finally released by digestion with a restriction endonuclease at any site downstream its 3' end. The usefulness of the method was exemplified here by insertion of an epidermal growth factor-like African swine fever virus gene immediately downstream of the ribosome binding site of an expression vector.     

Characterization and localization of the naturally occurring cross-links in vaccinia virus DNA

The vaccinia virus genome is a single, linear, duplex DNA molecule whose complementary strands are naturally cross-linked. The molecular weight has been determined by contour length measurements from electron micrographs to be 122 ± 2.2 × 10⁶. Denaturation mapping techniques indicate that the nucleotide sequence arrangement of the DNA is unique. Two forms of cross-linked vaccinia DNA were observed in alkaline sucrose gradients. The relative S-values of the two cross-linked species were appropriate for a single-stranded circle and a linear single strand, each with a molecular weight twice that expected for an intact, linear, complementary strand of vaccinia DNA. The fraction of sheared vaccinia DNA able to “snap back” after denaturation suggested a minimum of two crosslinks per molecule. Full-length single-stranded circles were observed in the electron microscope after denaturation of vaccinia DNA. Partial denaturation produced single-stranded loops at the ends of all full-length molecules. Exposure of native vaccinia DNA to a single strand-specific endonuclease isolated from vaccinia virions caused disruption of the cross-links, as assayed by alkaline sedimentation, and produced free single-strand ends when partially denatured DNA was observed in the electron microscope. We conclude that vaccinia DNA contains two cross-links, one at or near (within 50 nucleotides) each end in a region of single-stranded DNA. Two models for the cross-links are presented.     

Physical map of bacteriophage BF23 DNA: terminal redundancy and localization of single-chain interruptions.

The DNA of bacteriophage BF23 possesses two structural features, localized single-chain interruptions and a large terminal repetition, previously described for T5, a closely related virus. As is the case for T5, single-chain interruptions occur with variable frequencies at a small number of fixed sites within one strand of the double-stranded BF23 genome. The sites where interruptions occur with the highest frequencies were napped by an electrophoretic analysis of the single-stranded fragments produced by denaturation of BF23 DNA. The positions of these fragments were determined by degrading BF23 DNA to various extents with lambda exonuclease and observing the relative order with which they were (i) degraded or (ii) released intact from the undenatured duplex. The exact locations of the interruptions were determined from analysis of analogous duplex fragments produced by degrading exonuclease III-treated BF23 DNA with a single-strand-specific endonuclease. BF23 has five principal sites (located at 7.9, 18.7, 32.4, 65.8, and 99.6% from the left end of the DNA) where interruptions occur in most molecules. The principal interruptions in T5 DNA occur at similar positions. The locations of eight secondary interruptions in BF23 DNA were also determined. In general, BF23 DNA has fewer secondary interruptions than t5 dna, although there is at least one location where an interruption occurs with a greater frequency in BF23. The presence of a terminal repetition in BF23 DNA was demonstrated by annealing ligase-repaired molecules that had been partially digested with lambda exonuclease. If the complementary sequences at both ends of the DNA were exposed by exonuclease treatment, the duplex segment that resulted from annealing could be released by digestion with a single-strand-specific endonuclease. This segment was analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis and found to represent 8.4% of BF23 DNA.