Famine food of vegetal origin consumed in the Netherlands during World War II

Background

Periods of extreme food shortages during war force people to eat food that they normally do not consider edible. The last time that countries in Western Europe experienced severe scarcities was during World War II. The so-called Dutch famine or Hunger Winter (1944–1945) made at least 25,000 victims. The Dutch government took action by opening soup kitchens and providing information on wild plants and other famine food sources in “wartime cookbooks.” The Dutch wartime diet has never been examined from an ethnobotanical perspective.

Methods

We interviewed 78 elderly Dutch citizens to verify what they remembered of the consumption of vegetal and fungal famine food during World War II by them and their close surroundings. We asked whether they experienced any adverse effects from consuming famine food plants and how they knew they were edible. We identified plant species mentioned during interviews by their local Dutch names and illustrated field guides and floras. We hypothesized that people living in rural areas consumed more wild species than urban people. A Welch t test was performed to verify whether the number of wild and cultivated species differed between urban and rural citizens.

Results

A total number of 38 emergency food species (14 cultivated and 21 wild plants, three wild fungi) were mentioned during interviews. Sugar beets, tulip bulbs, and potato peels were most frequently consumed. Regularly eaten wild species were common nettle, blackberry, and beechnuts. Almost one third of our interviewees explicitly described to have experienced extreme hunger during the war. People from rural areas listed significantly more wild species than urban people. The number of cultivated species consumed by both groups was similar. Negative effects were limited to sore throats and stomachache from the consumption of sugar beets and tulip bulbs. Knowledge on the edibility of famine food was obtained largely by oral transmission; few people remembered the written recipes in wartime cookbooks.

Conclusion

This research shows that 71 years after the Second World War, knowledge on famine food species, once crucial for people’s survival, is still present in the Dutch society. The information on famine food sources supplied by several institutions was not distributed widely. For the necessary revival of famine food knowledge during the 1940s, people needed to consult a small group of elders. Presumed toxicity was a major reason given by our participants to explain why they did not collect wild plants or mushrooms during the war.

     

Molecular Improvement of Tropical Maize for Drought Stress Tolerance in Sub-Saharan Africa

The C4 grass Zea mays (maize or corn) is the third most important food crop globally after wheat and rice in terms of production and the second most widespread genetically modified (GM) crop, after soybean. Its demand is predicted to increase by 45% by the year 2020. In sub-Saharan Africa, tropical maize has traditionally been the main staple of the diet, 95% of the maize grown is consumed directly as human food and as an important source of income for the resource—poor rural population. However, its growth, development and production are greatly affected by environmental stresses such as drought and salinization. In this respect, food security in tropical sub-Saharan Africa is increasingly dependent on continuous improvement of tropical maize through conventional breeding involving improved germplasm, greater input of fertilizers, irrigation, and production of two or more crops per year on the same piece of land. Integration of advances in biotechnology, genomic research, and molecular marker applications with conventional plant breeding practices opens tremendous avenues for genetic modifications and fundamental research in tropical maize. The ability to transfer genes into this agronomically important crop might enable improvement of the species with respect to enhanced characteristics, such as enriched nutritional quality, high yield, resistance to herbicides, diseases, viruses, and insects, and tolerance to drought, salt, and flooding. These improvements in tropical maize will ultimately enhance global food production and human health. Molecular approaches to modulate drought stress tolerance are discussed for sub-Saharan Africa, but widely applicable to other tropical genotypes in Central and Latin America. This review highlights abiotic constraints that affect growth, development and production of tropical maize and subsequently focuses on the mechanisms that regulate drought stress tolerance in maize. Biotechnological approaches to manage abiotic stress tolerance in maize will be discussed. The current status of tropical maize transformation using Agrobacterium as a vehicle for DNA transfer is emphasized. This review also addresses the present status of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) regulation in sub-Saharan Africa.     

The 2001-03 Famine and the Dynamics of HIV in Malawi: A Natural Experiment

Background

Food security has deteriorated for many people in developing regions facing high and volatile food prices. Without effective and equitable responses, the situation is likely to worsen due to diminishing access to land and water, competition from non-food uses of agricultural products, and the effects of climate change and variability. Understanding how this will affect the burden and distribution of major diseases such as HIV is critical. This study makes use of the near-experimental conditions created by the Malawi famine to shed new light on this issue.

Methods

Multilevel, random intercept models were used to relate the change in HIV prevalence at antenatal surveillance sites over the course of the famine to the proportion of rural households requiring food aid in the surrounding district at the famine’s peak. Similar models were used to relate this indicator of rural hunger to changes in the composition of the antenatal population. The extent and direction of migration were estimated from a household survey conducted 1–2 years after the famine.

Findings

At rural sites, the change in HIV prevalence was positively and non-linearly related to the extent of rural hunger (P = 0.016), consistent with contemporary accounts of increased transactional sex and with hunger compromising immune function. At non-rural sites, prevalence declined as rural hunger increased (P = 0.006), concentrated in women who self-identified as farmers (P = 0.010). This finding is consistent with contemporary accounts of migration in search of food and work from villages where HIV risk was lower to towns and cities where it was higher. Corroborating this interpretation, the proportion of farmers in the antenatal population was found to rise at non-rural sites as rural hunger increased in the surrounding district (P = 0.015) whereas the proportion fell with increasing rural hunger at rural sites (P<0.001). The models suggest migrants were predominantly farming women under 25 years (P = 0.010). The household survey confirmed that there was a surge of rural-to-urban migration during the famine, particularly by women under 25 years. Migration to less affected rural areas also increased.

Conclusion

The Malawi famine appears to have had a substantial effect on HIV’s dynamics and demography. Poverty and inequality, commonly considered structural determinants of HIV epidemics, can change rapidly, apparently transmitting their effects with little lag. Epidemic patterns risk being misread if such social and economic change is ignored. Many studies examining HIV prevalence declines have implicated sexual behaviour change but do not appear to have adequately considered the contribution of rural-urban migration. The evidence from Malawi, which links actions that undermined people’s food security to changes in the prevalence and distribution of HIV infections, suggests new opportunities for prevention.     

Climate change and indicators of probable shifts in the consumption portfolios of dryland farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for policy

Several studies estimate the immediate impact of climate change on agricultural societies in terms of changes in crop yields or farm income, though few studies concentrate on the immediate secondary consequences of climate change. This synthetic analysis uses a set of indicators to assess the repercussions of predicted income reductions resulting from climate change on food consumption, nutrition, health expenditure, education, and recreation in Zimbabwe, Cameroon, South Africa and Ethiopia. We also assess the potential decline in human development potential among smallholder dryland farmers in these sub-Saharan African countries. In contrast to previous efforts, the current study directly integrates the uncertainties in estimations of income changes and secondary consequences through a weighting scheme. The results reveal moderate to high levels of secondary impacts which could lead to increased vulnerability to diseases, susceptibility to nutritional disorders, deprivation of educational opportunities, and ultimately to a reduction in human and societal development potential among the considered nations. The article concludes by proposing a portfolio of policy options for ameliorating the secondary impacts of climate change in these sub-Saharan African countries.     

Weather patterns, food security and humanitarian response in sub-Saharan Africa

Although considerable achievements in the global reduction of hunger and poverty have been made, progress in Africa so far has been very limited. At present, a third of the African population faces widespread hunger and chronic malnutrition and is exposed to a constant threat of acute food crisis and famine. The most affected are rural households whose livelihood is heavily dependent on traditional rainfed agriculture. Rainfall plays a major role in determining agricultural production and hence the economic and social well being of rural communities. The rainfall pattern in sub-Saharan Africa is influenced by large-scale intra-seasonal and inter-annual climate variability including occasional El Ni?o events in the tropical Pacific resulting in frequent extreme weather event such as droughts and floods that reduce agricultural outputs resulting in severe food shortages. Households and communities facing acute food shortages are forced to adopt coping strategies to meet the immediate food requirements of their families. These extreme responses may have adverse long-term, impacts on households' ability to have sustainable access to food as well as the environment. The HIV/AIDS crisis has also had adverse impacts on food production activities on the continent. In the absence of safety nets and appropriate financial support mechanisms, humanitarian aid is required to enable households effectively cope with emergencies and manage their limited resources more efficiently. Timely and appropriate humanitarian aid will provide households with opportunities to engage in productive and sustainable livelihood strategies. Investments in poverty reduction efforts would have better impact if complemented with timely and predictable response mechanisms that would ensure the protection of livelihoods during crisis periods whether weather or conflict-related. With an improved understanding of climate variability including El Ni?o, the implications of weather patterns for the food security and vulnerability of rural communities have become more predictable and can be monitored effectively. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how current advances in the understanding of climate variability, weather patterns and food security could contribute to improved humanitarian decision-making. The paper will propose new approaches for triggering humanitarian responses to weather-induced food crises.     

中国食品源氮消费环境排放及其城乡差异

食品源氮消费是人居环境养分流动的重要环节,中国食品源氮消费产生的环境排放受城乡二元结构影响在时空变化上呈现显著分异。基于物质流分析方法,从中国城乡食品消费后产物不同处理过程及其对氮代谢的影响出发,模拟氮物质代谢过程,构建了一套氮素环境排放计算模型,借以研究中国近20年来城乡食品源氮消费环境排放趋势变化及其差异。研究结果发现1993—2012年间,我国城乡居民人均食品源氮排变化轨迹迥异。同时,城乡食品源氮消费在其所造成的水体、土壤、大气环境负荷中扮演的角色各不相同:在水体环境负荷中,农村水体氮排占据主导地位,但城乡间差异正逐步缩小;在土壤环境负荷中,城市土壤氮排主导优势明显;2010年以前全国食品源氮消费大气环境负荷主要受农村气体氮排的影响,而2010年以后,城市大气氮排成为影响全国大气氮负荷的主导因素。引入社会经济因素分析后发现,城镇居民人均可支配收入水平对城镇居民人均食品源氮排起显著促进作用;而农村食品价格指数对农村居民人均食品源环境氮排呈显著抑制作用。通过情景预测分析发现:随着我国城镇化进程的加快,未来全国居民人均食品源氮排将以更快速度继续增长。     

How Can the Operating Environment for Nutrition Research Be Improved in Sub-Saharan Africa? The Views of African Researchers

Optimal nutrition is critical for human development and economic growth. Sub-Saharan Africa is facing high levels of food insecurity and only few sub-Saharan African countries are on track to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. Effective research capacity is crucial for addressing emerging challenges and designing appropriate mitigation strategies in sub-Saharan Africa. A clear understanding of the operating environment for nutrition research in sub-Saharan Africa is a much needed prerequisite. We collected data on the barriers and requirements for conducting nutrition research in sub-Saharan Africa through semi-structured interviews with 144 participants involved in nutrition research in 35 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. A total of 133 interviews were retained for coding. The main barriers identified for effective nutrition research were the lack of funding due to poor recognition by policymakers of the importance of nutrition research and under-utilisation of research findings for developing policy, as well as an absence of research priority setting from within Africa. Current research topics were perceived to be mainly determined by funding bodies from outside Africa. Nutrition researchers argued for more commitment from policymakers at national level. The low capacity for nutrition research was mainly seen as a consequence of insufficient numbers of nutrition researchers, limited skills and a poor research infrastructure. In conclusion, African nutrition researchers argued how research priorities need to be identified by African stakeholders, accompanied by consensus building to enable creating a problem-driven national research agenda. In addition, it was considered necessary to promote interactions among researchers, and between researchers and policymakers. Multidisciplinary research and international and cross-African collaboration were seen as crucial to build capacity in sub-Saharan nutrition research.     

A cross-sectional study of factors associated with dog ownership in Tanzania

Background

Mass vaccination of owned domestic dogs is crucial for the control of rabies in sub-Saharan Africa. Knowledge of the proportion of households which own dogs, and of the factors associated with dog ownership, is important for the planning and implementation of rabies awareness and dog vaccination programmes, and for the promotion of responsible dog ownership. This paper reports the results of a cross-sectional study of dog ownership by households in urban and rural communities in the United Republic of Tanzania.

Results

Fourteen percent (202) of 1,471 households surveyed were identified as dog-owning, with an average of 2.4 dogs per dog-owning household. The percentage of dog-owning households was highest in inland rural areas (24%) and lowest in coastal urban communities (7%). The overall human:dog ratio was 14:1. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that households which owned cattle, sheep or goats were much more likely to own dogs than households with no livestock. Muslim households were less likely to own dogs than Christian households, although this effect of religion was not seen among livestock-owning households. Households were more likely to own a dog if the head of the household was male; if they owned a cat; or if they owned poultry. Dog ownership was also broadly associated with larger, wealthier households.

Conclusion

The human:dog ratios in Tanzania are similar to those reported elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, although cultural and geographic variation is evident. Estimation of the number of owned dogs, and identification of household predictors of dog ownership, will enable targeted planning of rabies control efforts.

     

Garden Money Buys Grain: Food Procurement Patterns in a Malian Village

This study of a rural Malian community in West Africa investigates food procurement patterns that combine subsistence grain production with a variety of income generating activities. It finds dependence on food purchases widespread and revenue from the own-account activities of nonhousehold heads essential to food security. Gender and the wealth of households are found to influence some, but not all, income generating activities and expenditures. Three household food procurement profiles are identified: investment in cattle, market gardens and bush extraction, and remittances. The case study village has agroecological characteristics and market proximity, which set it and other urban hinterland villages apart from the more cotton- and cattle-based zones of southern Mali. Own-account income generating activities may be able to increase revenue for women and junior men through a reallocation of household resources without entirely undermining the basis for a larger subsistence-oriented household.     

Spatio-temporal assessment of urbanization impacts on ecosystem services: Case study of Nanjing City,China

Rapid urbanization is a global phenomenon that has altered many ecosystems, causing a decline in many ecosystem services, generating ecological risks such as water shortages, air pollution, and soil pollution. Here, we present a conceptual framework quantifying how urbanization influences the ecosystem services in a typical city (Nanjing) of China. Between 2000 and 2010, we separated the city into three urbanization categories (developing urban, developed urban, and rural areas) and quantified the status of six critical ecosystem services (food supply, carbon sequestration, soil water storage, air pollution removal, habitat suitability, and recreation potential). Our results show that urbanization significantly impacted all ecosystem services, with detected changes in ecosystem services being spatially heterogeneous due to urban expansion and population mobility. Developed areas contained greater amounts of green infrastructure, which improved carbon storage and reduced air pollution. In contrast, the rapid expansion of urban and industrial land in developing urban areas led to lower food supply, carbon sequestration, soil water storage, and habitat suitability. The expansion of rural residential areas led to lower soil water storage, carbon sequestration, and food supply, while greater amounts of abandoned cropland resulted in increased carbon sequestration, but decreased food supply in rural areas. Analysis of the interactions between pairs of ecosystem services identified urbanization development problems, including abandoned cropland and the expansion of rural residential land. Lastly, we proposed four key urban planning measures to mitigate the loss of ecosystem services during rapid urbanization. Acquiring quantitative knowledge about how rapid urbanization drives changes to ecosystem changes may help guide sustainable urban planning with respect to ecosystem service use, urban development, and human welfare benefits.     

Socioeconomic status as a risk factor for HIV infection in women in East, Central and Southern Africa: a systematic review

This is a critical, systematic review of the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and HIV infection in women in Southern, Central and Eastern Africa. In light of the interest in micro-credit programmes and other HIV prevention interventions structured to empower women through increasing women's access to funds and education, this review examines the epidemiological and public health literature, which ascertains the association between low SES using different measurements of SES and risk of HIV infection in women. Also, given the focus on structural violence and poverty as factors driving the HIV epidemic at a structural/ecological level, as advocated by Paul Farmer and others, this study examines the extent to which differences in SES between individuals in areas with generalized poverty affect risk for SES. Out of 71 studies retrieved, 36 studies met the inclusion criteria including 30 cross-sectional, one case-control and five prospective cohort or nested case-control studies. Thirty-five studies used at least one measurement of female's SES and fourteen also included a measurement of partner's SES. Studies used variables measuring educational level, household income and occupation or employment status at the individual and neighbourhood level to ascertain SES. Of the 36 studies, fifteen found no association between SES and HIV infection, twelve found an association between high SES and HIV infection, eight found an association between low SES and HIV infection and one was mixed. In interpreting these results, this review examines the role of potential confounders and effect modifiers such as history of STDs, number of partners, living in urban or rural areas and time and location of study in sub-Saharan Africa. It is argued that STDs and number of partners are on the causal pathway under investigation between HIV and SES and should not be adjusted as confounders in any analysis. In conclusion, it is argued that in low-income sub-Saharan Africans countries, where poverty is widespread, increasing access to resources for women may initially increase risk of HIV or have no effect on risk-taking behaviours. In some parts of Southern Africa where per capita income is higher and within-country inequalities in wealth are greater, studies suggest that increasing SES may decrease risk. This review concludes that increased SES may have differential effects on married and unmarried women and further studies should use multiple measures of SES. Lastly, it is suggested that the partner's SES (measured by education or income/employment) may be a stronger predictor of female HIV serostatus than measures of female SES.     

Burials and Belonging in Nigeria: Rural–Urban Relations and Social Inequality in a Contemporary African Ritual

In sub-Saharan Africa, rural–urban relationships are primary arenas in which social change is shaped, expressed, and contested. Like people in many contemporary African societies, rural–urban migrants of the Igbo ethnic group in Nigeria face powerful expectations to be buried "at home" in their ancestral villages and to perform elaborate and expensive funeral ceremonies for their dead relatives. This article argues that Igbo funerals crystallize many of the structural paradoxes associated with inequality in Nigerian society, particularly as they are manifest in kin-based patron–client relations between rural communities and their migrant kin. The tensions that coalesce around burials illustrate how rituals are not only socially integrative but also can reflect, reveal, and contribute to discontents regarding transformations in the organization and extent of social inequality.     

Incentives for Hunting: The Role of Bushmeat in the Household Economy in Rural Equatorial Guinea

Bushmeat is an important component of the informal economy throughout West and Central Africa. In order to formulate effective policy to ensure the sustainability of bushmeat hunting for both development and conservation reasons, there is a need to understand its position within the wider rural economy. We conducted interviews with households and hunters over a 15-month period in a village in continental Equatorial Guinea which supplies substantial quantities of bushmeat to the urban market, to evaluate (1) whether hunting is predominately for income or consumption and through choice or necessity, and (2) the factors influencing household production of and consumption and expenditure on bushmeat. Hunting for trade to urban markets is a major component of household incomes, carried out by around 60% of poor-to-middle income households, while richer households have other income-generating activities. The greater a hunter’s bushmeat offtake, the higher the proportion sold. Bushmeat forms a minor component of household expenditure and is less widely consumed than alternative protein sources. It is a necessity good, with consumption and expenditure on bushmeat related less than proportionately to income. While they prefer the security of a regular wage, hunting is an important source of fall-back income for men in the absence of preferable alternative livelihood opportunities.     

Food Shortages and International Agricultural Programs

The most recent data indicate an unconscionable 842 million people are chronically hungry in the world, 94 percent in developing countries. India, China, and other Asian countries that were the center of concern over hunger in 1960 have been among the most successful at increasing food production and consumption. Current food shortages, both chronic and acute, are concentrated in sub-Sahara Africa. There, production has lagged behind needs and fluctuations from natural and human-caused disasters have generated recurring food shortages and need for food aid. Three elements played critical roles in Asia and are likely to be the key to solving food shortages in Africa: rural/agricultural economic growth that generated increased incomes for the rural poor, stability of food prices, and non-agricultural economic growth. U.S. universities have educated many of the agricultural scientists in developing countries and those at CGIAR centers. The international agricultural programs of U.S. universities that have been important in maintaining links between U.S. and foreign institutions and in facilitating the training of developing country scientists need continued financial support.     

Limited Supermarket Availability Is Not Associated With Obesity Risk Among Participants in the Kansas WIC Program

Socioecological theory and a growing body of research suggests that geographic, racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in the prevalence of obesity are linked to disparities in the availability of food retail outlets that provide healthy food options. We examined the availability of food stores for low‐income women in Kansas and tested whether food store availability was associated with obesity using cross‐sectional, geocoded data from women participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) (n = 21,166) in Kansas. The availability and density of food stores within a 1, 3, and 5 mile radius of residence was determined, and multivariate logistic regression was used to examine the association of food store availability with obesity. The availability of convenience, grocery stores, and supermarkets varied across the urban–rural continuum, but the majority of WIC recipients lived within a 1 mile radius of a small grocery store. WIC participants in micropolitan areas had the greatest availability of food stores within a 1 mile radius of residence. Availability and density of food stores was not associated with obesity in metropolitan and rural areas, but availability and density of any type of food store was associated with an increased risk of obesity among WIC recipients in micropolitan areas. These results suggest that limited spatial availability of grocery stores and supermarkets does not contribute to obesity risk among low‐income WIC recipients in Kansas, and that urban influence moderates the contribution of food environments to obesity.     

Neglected Fungal Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Call to Action

Despite the considerable morbidity and mortality associated with fungal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, it is notable that these diseases have been omitted from an expanded list of neglected tropical diseases. Inextricably tied together with HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis in sub-Saharan Africa, important fungal diseases such as cryptococcal meningitis and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) manifest as relatively common and deadly AIDS-defining opportunistic infections, often masked by and comorbid with tuberculosis. Others, such as mycetoma, which manifest as a debilitating and deforming illness primarily affecting rural adults, directly affect the socioeconomic productivity of rural communities. Lack of adequate diagnostic tests makes identifying the true disease burden due to fungal diseases difficult. To highlight the devastating impact of fungal diseases on the health and socioeconomic circumstances of sub-Saharan Africa’s poorest people and to increase the profile of efforts to control and prevent these diseases, we propose that the following fungal diseases be added to the list of neglected tropical diseases: cryptococcal meningitis, PCP, mycetoma, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and blastomycosis. By outlining the prevalence, distribution, and disease burden of these fungal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa in this review, we hope to provide information to prioritize strategies for detection, control, and prevention of the neglected fungal diseases.     

Nutritional Status in Community-Dwelling Elderly in France in Urban and Rural Areas

Malnutrition is a frequent condition in elderly people, especially in nursing homes and geriatric wards. Its frequency is less well known among elderly living at home. The objective of this study was to describe the nutritional status evaluated by the Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) of elderly community-dwellers living in rural and urban areas in France and to investigate its associated factors.

Methods

Subjects aged 65 years and over from the Approche Multidisciplinaire Intégrée (AMI) cohort (692 subjects living in a rural area) and the Three-City (3C) cohort (8,691 subjects living in three large urban zones) were included. A proxy version of the MNA was reconstructed using available data from the AMI cohort. Sensitivity and specificity were used to evaluate the agreement between the proxy version and the standard version in AMI. The proxy MNA was computed in both cohorts to evaluate the frequency of poor nutritional status. Factors associated with this state were investigated in each cohort separately.

Results

In the rural sample, 38.0% were females and the mean age was 75.5 years. In the urban sample, 60.3% were females and the mean age was 74.1 years. Among subjects in living in the rural sample, 7.4% were in poor nutritional status while the proportion was 18.5% in the urban sample. Female gender, older age, being widowed, a low educational level, low income, low body mass index, being demented, having a depressive symptomatology, a loss of autonomy and an intake of more than 3 drugs appeared to be independently associated with poor nutritional status.

Conclusion

Poor nutritional status was commonly observed among elderly people living at home in both rural and urban areas. The associated factors should be further considered for targeting particularly vulnerable individuals.     

A Low-Cost Manipulation of Food Resources Reduces Spatial Overlap Between Baboons (Papio ursinus) and Humans in Conflict

Competition over food and space is a primary driver of human?Cwildlife conflict. In the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) have adapted to a human-modified environment, sleeping on the urban edge and raiding anthropogenic food sources on a daily basis. Human monitors, who herd baboons away from residential areas, are currently the preferred method of conflict mitigation. However, this method is costly and suffers from short-term interruptions, wherein the unexpected absence of monitors may lead to unprepared residents using lethal force to deter raiding baboons. Elsewhere in the chacma baboon distribution (in nonconflict areas), artificial food patches have been shown to alter troop movements drastically by eliciting consistent leadership behavior from alpha males. We investigated whether an artificial patch could be used to draw baboons away from the urban environment in the absence of monitors. First, we introduced an artificial food patch into natural land within a troop??s range and monitored movement and activity patterns. Although the troop utilized the patch, there was not a significant decline in use of the urban space as they continued to favor food in urban waste sites. Maintaining the patch, we then restricted access to these waste sites using wire-mesh fencing and observed a significant reduction in the time the troop spent within the urban space. In both experimental phases we observed consistent leadership, with dominant individuals arriving first at the patch and monopolizing food items thereon. Thus, we recommend the combined strategy of reducing raiding incentives in conjunction with provisioning as a short-term, cost-effective strategy to alter a baboon troop??s movement patterns and raiding frequency.     

Size and trends of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus population in Great Britain

House Sparrow Passer domesticus populations have declined throughout Europe over the last two to three decades; this is of particular concern in urban areas. We analysed data from extensive census schemes organized by the British Trust for Ornithology to determine the current population size of the House Sparrow in Britain, and to assess long-term patterns of change, both in the wider countryside and in urban environments. The national breeding population of House Sparrows was estimated at approximately 13 million individuals (95% confidence interval, 11.9–14.8 million), or about six million pairs. Most of these occur in southeast England and densities are greatest in suburban and rural garden habitats. Overall, populations in rural areas have declined by 47% since the mid 1970s, whereas those in urban and suburban areas have declined by about 60%. Changes in farming practices are likely to account for at least some of the decline in the wider countryside, probably related to changes in food resources, with a loss of grain in fields and more secure storage of harvested grain, though these changes are unquantified. In urban areas, there was an earlier period of decline in the first half of the 20th century due to the loss of horse-drawn transport and generally cleaner streets. The overall national decline since the 1970s masks much heterogeneity in trend among regional populations, and evidence suggests that population processes in the House Sparrow may be relatively fine-grained.