Polyelectrolyte microcapsules as the systems for delivery of biologically active substances

Based on the method of the layer-by-layer (LbL) adsorption of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, sodium alginate (Alg) and poly-L-lysine (PLL), novel biodegradable microcapsules have been prepared for delivery of biological active substances (BAS). Porous spherical CaCO₃ microparticles were used as templates. The template cores were coated with several layers of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes forming shell on the core surface. The core-shell microparticles were converted into hollow microcapsules by means of core dissolution with EDTA. Mild conditions for microcapsules preparation allow to perform incorporation of various biomolecules maintaining their bioactivity. Biocompatibility and biodegradability of the polyelectrolytes give a possibility to use the microcapsules as the target delivery systems. Chymotrypsin entrapped into the microcapsules was used as a model enzyme. The immobilized enzyme retained about 86% of the activity compared to a native chymotrypsin. The resultant microcapsules were stable in acidic medium and could be easily decomposed by trypsin treatment in slightly alkaline medium. Chymotrypsin was shown to be active after its release from the microcapsules decomposed by the trypsin treatment. Thus, the microcapsules prepared by the LbL technique can be used for the development of new type of BAS delivery systems in humans and animals.     

Incorporation of proteins into polyelectrolyte microcapsules by coprecipitation and adsorption

Microcapsules composed of synthetic (sodium polystyrene sulfonate and polyallylamine hydrochloride) and biodegradable polyelectrolytes (dextran sulfate and polyarginine hydrochloride) deposited on carbonate microparticles have been obtained. The ultrastructural organization of biodegradable microcapsules has been studied by transmission electron microscopy. The shell of biodegradable microcapsules is well formed even after the deposition of six polyelectrolyte layers and has an average thickness of 44 ± 3.0 nm; their inner polyelectrolyte matrix is less branched than that of synthetic microcapsules. By using spectroscopy, the efficiency of the encapsulation of FITC-labeled BSA by adsorption depending on the number of PE layers in the capsule has been estimated. It has been shown that the maximum amount of the protein is incorporated into capsules comprising six and seven polyelectrolyte layers (4 and 2 pg/capsule, respectively). It has been concluded that the adsorption of proteins into preformed polyelectrolyte capsules enables one to avoid protein losses that occur with the method in which biomineral cores obtained by coprecipitation are used for encapsulation.     

Encapsulation of basic fibroblast growth factor by polyelectrolyte multilayer microcapsules and its controlled release for enhancing cell proliferation

Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) is an important protein for cellular activity and highly vulnerable to environmental conditions. FGF2 protected by heparin and bovine serum albumin was loaded into the microcapsules by a coprecipitation-based layer-by-layer encapsulation method. Low cytotoxic and biodegradable polyelectrolytes dextran sulfate and poly-L-arginine were used for capsule shell assembly. The shell thickness-dependent encapsulation efficiency was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A maximum encapsulation efficiency of 42% could be achieved by microcapsules with a shell thickness of 14 layers. The effects of microcapsule concentration and shell thickness on cytotoxicity, FGF2 release kinetics, and L929 cell proliferation were evaluated in vitro. The advantage of using microcapsules as the carrier for FGF2 controlled release for enhancing L929 cell proliferation was analyzed.     

Scalable encapsulation of hepatocytes by electrostatic spraying

Encapsulating cells by polyelectrolyte complex coacervation can be accomplished at physiological temperature and buffer conditions. One of the oppositely charged polyelectrolytes in the microcapsule core can be collagen or any other natural extra-cellular matrices suitable for cellular support while the other polyelectrolyte forms the ultra-thin shell to ensure efficient mass transfer. These microcapsules with ultra-thin shell are difficult to produce in large quantities due to their fragility. In this study, electrostatic spraying technique was used to achieve a scalable production of one such type of microcapsules formed by complex coacervation between the cationic methylated collagen and anionic terpolymer of hydroxylethyl methacrylate, methyl methacrylate and methylacrylic acid (HEMA-MMA-MAA). It was found that the microcapsule sizes were dependent on several important operational parameters, such as the diameter of the spraying needle, the flow rate of the hepatocytes-collagen mixture and the voltage of the electrical field. The microcapsules with diameters of 200-800 microm and a narrow size distribution (standard deviation of 5-28%) were successfully produced. The above parameters also influenced the hepatocyte viability and functions. With a practical encapsulation rate of up to 55 ml/h per orifice required in bio-artificial liver-assisted device applications, we have produced large quantities of microcapsules maintaining comparable cell viability (>87%), mechanical stability and bio-functions to the manually extruded microcapsules.     

Protein-filled polyelectrolyte microcapsules in the design of enzymic microdiagnostics

Encapsulation of enzymes (lactate dehydrogenase and urease) in polyelectrolyte shells was assessed with a view to designing enzymic microdiagnostics for low-molecular compounds in native biological fluids. Polyelectrolyte microcapsules were prepared with two polyanions [poly(styrenesulfonate) PSS and dextran sulfate DS] and two polycations [poly(allylamine) PAA and poly(diallyldimethylammonium) PDADMA]; calcium carbonate microspherulites with embedded enzymes served as “cores.” It was demonstrated that the main problem in making such a biosensor is to select a pair of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes that would be optimal for enzyme functioning. The best pairs were PAA/DS and PAA/PSS for lactate dehydrogenase, and PSS/PAA and PSS/PDADMA for urease. We designed and prepared enzyme-containing microcapsules differing in polyelectrolyte composition and number of layers, and investigated their properties.     

Self-cross-linking polyelectrolyte complexes for therapeutic cell encapsulation

Self-cross-linking polyelectrolytes are used to strengthen the surface of calcium alginate beads for cell encapsulation. Poly([2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride), containing 30 mol % 2-aminoethyl methacrylate, and poly(sodium methacrylate), containing 30 mol % 2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl acetoacetate, were prepared by radical polymerization. Sequential deposition of these polyelectrolytes on calcium alginate films or beads led to a shell consisting of a covalently cross-linked polyelectrolyte complex that resisted osmotic pressure changes as well as challenges with citrate and high ionic strength. Confocal laser fluorescence microscopy revealed that both polyelectrolytes were concentrated in the outer 7-25 microm of the calcium alginate beads. The thickness of this cross-linked shell increased with exposure time. GPC studies of solutions permeating through analogous flat model membranes showed molecular weight cut-offs between 150 and 200 kg/mol for poly(ethylene glycol), suitable for cell encapsulation. C 2C 12 mouse cells were shown to be viable within calcium alginate capsules coated with the new polyelectrolytes, even though some of the capsules showed fibroid overcoats when implanted in mice due to an immune response.     

Distribution of proteins inside polyelectrolyte microcapsules depend on pH of medium

Distribution of bovine serum albumin and ferritin inside polyelectrolyte microcapsules was studied by transmission electron and confocal microscopy at the pH range 2-5. It was estimate that protein's distribution depends on isoelectric point (pI) and first polyelectrolyte used for preparation of capsule shell. So peptide is placed in the bulk of capsule if pH values of medium are lower isoelectric point of protein and polycation was used as a first polyelectrolyte layer. If the first polyelectrolyte was polyanion, the protein is located near internal surface of the shell. The protein is situated near internal surface of the shell for both polyelectrolytes when pH is equal to pI.     

Multilayer DNA/poly(allylamine hydrochloride) microcapsules: assembly and mechanical properties

We report the preparation, characterization, and mechanical properties of DNA/poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) multilayer microcapsules. The DNA/PAH multilayers were first constructed on a planar support to examine their layer-by-layer buildup. Surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy (SPR) showed a nonlinear growth of the assembly upon each bilayer deposited independently on a concentration of salt. A weak increase in the film thickness with the DNA concentration was, however, detected. A post-treatment of the multilayers in the salt solutions has shown a thinning of the film. The optimal conditions of the planar film growth were used to deposit the same multilayers on the surface of colloidal templates and to study their roughness and morphology with the atomic force microscope (AFM) imaging. When an outer layer is formed by DNA, we observe large domains of oriented parallel DNA loops, while an outer layer formed by PAH shows highly porous morphology. The dissolution of colloidal templates led to a formation of highly porous DNA/PAH microcapsules. We probe their mechanical properties by measuring force-deformation curves with the AFM-related setup. The experiment suggests that the DNA/PAH capsules are softer than capsules made from the flexible polyelectrolytes studied before. The softening is due to both higher permeability and smaller Young's modulus of the shell material. The Young's modulus of the DNA/PAH shells increases after post-treatment in salt solutions of relatively low concentration.     

Synthesis and Characterization of PLGA Shell Microcapsules Containing Aqueous Cores Prepared by Internal Phase Separation

The preparation of microcapsules consisting of poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) polymer shell and aqueous core is a clear challenge and hence has been rarely addressed in literature. Herein, aqueous core-PLGA shell microcapsules have been prepared by internal phase separation from acetone-water in oil emulsion. The resulting microcapsules exhibited mean particle size of 1.1?±?0.39 μm (PDI?=?0.35) with spherical surface morphology and internal poly-nuclear core morphology as indicated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The incorporation of water molecules into PLGA microcapsules was confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Aqueous core-PLGA shell microcapsules and the corresponding conventional PLGA microspheres were prepared and loaded with risedronate sodium as a model drug. Interestingly, aqueous core-PLGA shell microcapsules illustrated 2.5-fold increase in drug encapsulation in comparison to the classical PLGA microspheres (i.e., 31.6 vs. 12.7%), while exhibiting sustained release behavior following diffusion-controlled Higuchi model. The reported method could be extrapolated to encapsulate other water soluble drugs and hydrophilic macromolecules into PLGA microcapsules, which should overcome various drawbacks correlated with conventional PLGA microspheres in terms of drug loading and release.     

pH-Sensitive ionomeric particles obtained via chemical conjugation of silk with poly(amino acid)s

Silk-fibroin-based biomaterials have been widely utilized for a range of biomaterial-related systems. For all these previously reported systems, the β-sheet forming feature of the silk was the key stabilizing element of the final material structure. Herein, we describe a different strategy, based on the engineering of silk-based ionomers that can yield stable colloidal composites or particle suspensions through electrostatic interactions. These silk-based ionomers were obtained by carbodiimide-mediated coupling of silk fibroin with polylysine hydrobromide and polyglutamic acid sodium salts, respectively. Colloidal composites could be obtained by mixing the ionomeric pair at high concentration (i.e., 25% w/v), while combining them at lower concentrations (i.e., 5% w/v) yielded particle suspensions. The assembly of the ionomers was driven by electrostatic interactions, pH-dependent, and reversible. The network assembly appeared to be polarized, with the interacting poly(amino acid) chains clustered to the core of the particles and the silk backbone oriented outward. In agreement with this assembly mode, doxorubicin, a hydrophilic antitumor drug, could be released at a slow rate, in a pH-dependent manner, indicating that the inside of the ionomeric particles was mainly hydrophilic in nature.     

Gel electrophoretic analysis of poly(riboadenylic acid)

It is shown that molecular weights and molecular-weight distributions of poly(rA), and by implication other single-stranded polynucleotides, and synthetic and natural polyelectrolytes in general, can be determined by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels. It is shown that fractions of very narrow molecular-weight distribution can be obtained by preparative electrophoresis of polydisperse samples. Molecular-weight calibrations based on sedimentation coefficients of such fractions are given, and in aqueous systems do not coincide with calibrations for partially base-paired RNA species. Poly(rU) fractions fall on the same calibration as poly(rA). Relations between mobilities, relative to standard markers, and molecular weight for poly(rA) over a wide range of molecular weights are given, which allow rapid molecular-weight determination on poly(rA) samples, such as the segments found in many types of messenger RNA.     

Affibody-attached hyperbranched conjugated polyelectrolyte for targeted fluorescence imaging of HER2-positive cancer cell

A hyperbranched conjugated polyelectrolyte (HCPE) with a core-shell structure is designed and synthesized via alkyne polycyclotrimerization and click chemistry. The HCPE has an emission maximum at 565 nm with a quantum yield of 12% and a large Stokes shift of 143 nm in water. By virtue of its poly(ethylene glycol) shell, this polymer naturally forms spherical nanoparticles that minimize nonspecific interaction with biomolecules in aqueous solution, consequently allowing for efficient bioconjugation with anti-HER2 affibody via carbodiimide-activated coupling reaction. The resulting affibody-attached HCPE can be utilized as a reliable fluorescent probe for targeted cellular imaging of HER2-overexpressed cancer cells such as SKBR-3. Considering its low cytotoxicity and good photostability, the HCPE nanoprobe holds great promise in practical imaging tasks. This study also provides a molecular engineering strategy to overcome the intrinsic limitations of traditional fluorescent polymers (e.g., chromophore-tethered polymers and linear conjugated polyelectrolytes) for bioconjugation and applications.     

The dependence of proteins’ distribution within polyelectrolyte microcapsules on pH of the medium

The distribution of bovine serum albumin and ferritin within polyelectrolyte microcapsules was studied by transmission electron and confocal microscopy at the pH range 2–5. It was estimated that the protein’s distribution depends on the isoelectric point (pI) and first polyelectrolyte used for the preparation of the capsule shell. The peptide is placed in the bulk of capsule if the pH values of the medium are close to the isoelectric point of the protein and polycation was used as a first polyelectrolyte layer. If the first polyelectrolyte was polyanion, the protein is located near the internal surface of the shell. The protein is situated near the internal surface of the shell for both polyelectrolytes when pH is equal to pI.     

Silk as an innovative biomaterial for cancer therapy

Silk has been used for centuries in the textile industry and as surgical sutures. In addition to its unique mechanical properties, silk possesses other properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability and ability to self-assemble, which make it an interesting material for biomedical applications. Although silk forms only fibers in nature, synthetic techniques can be used to control the processing of silk into different morphologies, such as scaffolds, films, hydrogels, microcapsules, and micro- and nanospheres. Moreover, the biotechnological production of silk proteins broadens the potential applications of silk. Synthetic silk genes have been designed. Genetic engineering enables modification of silk properties or the construction of a hybrid silk. Bioengineered hybrid silks consist of a silk sequence that self-assembles into the desired morphological structure and the sequence of a polypeptide that confers a function to the silk biomaterial. The functional domains can comprise binding sites for receptors, enzymes, drugs, metals or sugars, among others. Here, we review the current status of potential applications of silk biomaterials in the field of oncology with a focus on the generation of implantable, injectable and targeted drug delivery systems and the three-dimensional cancer models based on silk scaffolds for cancer research. However, the systems described could be applied in many biomedical fields.     

PTTH--a potential growth activator in silkworm,Bombyx mori L. for enhancing silk production

In silkworm, prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), directly or indirectly controls silk production and spinning activity along with juvenile hormone (JH). An effort was made to exploit the potential of PTTH by indirectly activating silk gland for increasing silk productivity using short chain synthetic analogues of PTTH. The analogy in action was also established using PTTH extracted from the silkmoth. Different doses of 42 synthetic PTTH analogues, viz., 2.5, 5, 10 and 20ppm and 3.3 mg/ml of PTTH extracted from silkmoth heads were administered orally to V instar silkworm larvae (Race:KAxNB4D2 and PMxNB4D2) at 0-144 hr at an interval of 24 hr. The analysed data showed an improvement of about 14 - 23% in KA x NB4D2 and about 10-14% in PMxNB4D2 in respect of cocoon shell weight on administration of some of the synthetic PTTH analogues. The PTTH extracted from the adult brain also showed similar effect. The structural analogy of synthetic PTTHs (which improved the shell weight) with original PTTH and its probable mode of action in silkworm are discussed.     

Polyelectrolyte multilayer microcapsules: Self-assembly and toward biomedical applications

Over the past few years, many studies have been performed involving the application of the Layer-by-Layer (LbL) deposition of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes onto charged colloidal particles, followed by the dissolution of the templates, ultimately resulting in polyelectrolyte multilayer microcapsules. The ease of preparation of polyelectrolyte multilayer microcapsules afforded by the LbL self-assembly technique, as well as the advantages of accurate control over size, composition, and the thickness of the multilayer shell make these capsules very promising for a number of applications in materials and biomedical science. In this review, we describe the assembly and stimuli-responsive properties (“smart” capsules) of polyelectrolyte multilayer microcapsules, and also discuss the potential of this technique in regard to biomedical applications. In addition, we illustrate two measurement techniques for determining the mechanical properties of polyelectrolyte multilayer microcapsules—(i) osmotic swelling and (ii) AFM compression experiments. These capsules are believed to have great potential for future applications, including biosensors, bioreactors, and carriers for targeted drug delivery.     

Progress technology in microencapsulation methods for cell therapy

Cell encapsulation in microcapsules allows the in situ delivery of secreted proteins to treat different pathological conditions. Spherical microcapsules offer optimal surface‐to‐volume ratio for protein and nutrient diffusion, and thus, cell viability. This technology permits cell survival along with protein secretion activity upon appropriate host stimuli without the deleterious effects of immunosuppressant drugs. Microcapsules can be classified in 3 categories: matrix‐core/shell microcapsules, liquid‐core/shell microcapsules, and cells‐core/shell microcapsules (or conformal coating). Many preparation techniques using natural or synthetic polymers as well as inorganic compounds have been reported. Matrix‐core/shell microcapsules in which cells are hydrogel‐embedded, exemplified by alginates capsule, is by far the most studied method. Numerous refinement of the technique have been proposed over the years such as better material characterization and purification, improvements in microbead generation methods, and new microbeads coating techniques. Other approaches, based on liquid‐core capsules showed improved protein production and increased cell survival. But aside those more traditional techniques, new techniques are emerging in response to shortcomings of existing methods. More recently, direct cell aggregate coating have been proposed to minimize membrane thickness and implants size. Microcapsule performances are largely dictated by the physicochemical properties of the materials and the preparation techniques employed. Despite numerous promising pre‐clinical results, at the present time each methods proposed need further improvements before reaching the clinical phase. © 2009 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 2009     

Preparation of microcapsules with multi-layers structure stabilized by chitosan and sodium dodecyl sulfate

The microcapsules with oil core and multi-layers shell were developed from poly-cationic chitosan (CS) and anionic SDS in multistep electrostatic layer by layer deposition technique combined with oil in water emulsification process. The net charge of microcapsules determined by zeta potential indicated that microcapsules are highly positive charged because of poly-cationic nature of CS, and charge neutralization of microcapsules occurred after alkali treatment. The granulometry measurement showed increase in average diameter of microcapsules by alkali treatment suggesting swelling or formation of small aggregates. The morphology analysis of microcapsules by optical microscopy corroborated the results of granulometry, and diameter of microcapsules was found to be decreased in multistep process due to tight packing of layers in outer shell of microcapsules. The alkali treatment of microcapsules to solidify outer shell was optimized with 0.02N NaOH to reduce microcapsules aggregation and gel formation by CS chains as found in optical micrographs.     

The molecular structures of major ampullate silk proteins of the wasp spider,Argiope bruennichi: A second blueprint for synthesizing de novo silk

The dragline silk of orb-weaving spiders possesses extremely high tensile strength and elasticity. To date, full-length sequences of only two genes encoding major ampullate silk protein (MaSp) in Latrodectus hesperus have been determined. In order to further understand this gene family, we utilized in this study a variety of strategies to isolate full-length MaSp1 and MaSp2 cDNAs in the wasp spider Argiope bruennichi. A. bruennichi MaSp1 and MaSp2 are primarily composed of remarkably homogeneous ensemble repeats containing several complex motifs, and both have highly conserved C-termini and N-termini. Two novel amino acid motifs, GGF and SGR, were found in MaSp1 and MaSp2, respectively. Amino acid composition analysis of silk, luminal contents and predicted sequences indicates that MaSp1 and MaSp2 are two major components of major ampullate glands and that the ratio of MaSp1 to MaSp2 is approximately 3:2 in dragline silk. Furthermore, both the MaSp1:MaSp2 ratio and the conserved termini are closely linked with the production of high quality synthetic fibers. Our results make an important contribution to our understanding of major ampullate silk protein structure and provide a second blueprint for creating new composite silk which mimics natural spider dragline silk.     

Spider silks: recombinant synthesis,assembly, spinning,and engineering of synthetic proteins

Since thousands of years humans have utilized insect silks for their own benefit and comfort. The most famous example is the use of reeled silkworm silk from Bombyx mori to produce textiles. In contrast, despite the more promising properties of their silk, spiders have not been domesticated for large-scale or even industrial applications, since farming the spiders is not commercially viable due to their highly territorial and cannibalistic nature. Before spider silks can be copied or mimicked, not only the sequence of the underlying proteins but also their functions have to be resolved. Several attempts to recombinantly produce spider silks or spider silk mimics in various expression hosts have been reported previously. A new protein engineering approach, which combines synthetic repetitive silk sequences with authentic silk domains, reveals proteins that closely resemble silk proteins and that can be produced at high yields, which provides a basis for cost-efficient large scale production of spider silk-like proteins.