Notch Pathway Activation Contributes to Inhibition of C2C12 Myoblast Differentiation by Ethanol

The loss of muscle mass in alcoholic myopathy may reflect alcohol inhibition of myogenic cell differentiation into myotubes. Here, using a high content imaging system we show that ethanol inhibits C2C12 myoblast differentiation by reducing myogenic fusion, creating smaller and less complex myotubes compared with controls. Ethanol administration during C2C12 differentiation reduced MyoD and myogenin expression, and microarray analysis identified ethanol activation of the Notch signaling pathway target genes Hes1 and Hey1. A reporter plasmid regulated by the Hes1 proximal promoter was activated by alcohol treatment in C2C12 cells. Treatment of differentiating C2C12 cells with a gamma secretase inhibitor (GSI) abrogated induction of Hes1. On a morphological level GSI treatment completely rescued myogenic fusion defects and partially restored other myotube parameters in response to alcohol. We conclude that alcohol inhibits C2C12 myoblast differentiation and the inhibition of myogenic fusion is mediated by Notch pathway activation.     

Protein O-Fucosyltransferase 1 Expression Impacts Myogenic C2C12 Cell Commitment via the Notch Signaling Pathway

The Notch signaling pathway plays a crucial role in skeletal muscle regeneration in mammals by controlling the transition of satellite cells from quiescence to an activated state, their proliferation, and their commitment toward myotubes or self-renewal. O-fucosylation on Notch receptor epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats is catalyzed by the protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (Pofut1) and primarily controls Notch interaction with its ligands. To approach the role of O-fucosylation in myogenesis, we analyzed a murine myoblastic C2C12 cell line downregulated for Pofut1 expression by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) inhibition during the time course of differentiation. Knockdown of Pofut1 affected the signaling pathway activation by a reduction of the amount of cleaved Notch intracellular domain and a decrease in downstream Notch target gene expression. Depletion in Pax7⁺/MyoD⁻ cells and earlier myogenic program entrance were observed, leading to an increase in myotube quantity with a small number of nuclei, reflecting fusion defects. The rescue of Pofut1 expression in knockdown cells restored Notch signaling activation and a normal course in C2C12 differentiation. Our results establish the critical role of Pofut1 on Notch pathway activation during myogenic differentiation.     

A cyclic AMP-dependent pathway regulates the expression of acetylcholinesterase during myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells

The expression of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is markedly increased during myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts to myotubes; the expression is mediated by intrinsic factor(s) during muscle differentiation. In order to analyze the molecular mechanisms regulating AChE expression during myogenic differentiation, a approximately 2.2-kb human AChE promoter tagged with a luciferase reporter gene, namely pAChE-Luc, was stably transfected into C2C12 cells. The profile of promoter-driven luciferase activity during myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myotubes was found to be similar to that of endogenous expression of AChE catalytic subunit. The increase of AChE expression was reciprocally regulated by a cAMP-dependent signaling pathway. The level of intracellular cAMP, the activity of cAMP-dependent protein kinase, the phosphorylation of cAMP-responsive element binding protein and the activity of cAMP- responsive element (CRE) were down-regulated during the myotube formation. Mutating the CRE site of human AChE promoter altered the original myogenic profile of the promoter activity and its suppressive response to cAMP. In addition, the suppressive effect of the CRE site is dependent on its location on the promoter. Therefore, our results suggest that a cAMP-dependent signaling pathway serves as a suppressive element in regulating the expression of AChE during early myogenesis.     

Notch signaling imposes two distinct blocks in the differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts

Notch signal transduction regulates expression of downstream genes through the activation of the DNA-binding protein Su(H)/CBF1. In Drosophila most of Notch signaling requires Su(H); however, some Notch-dependent processes occur in the absence of Su(H) suggesting that Notch signaling does not always involve activation of this factor. Using constitutively active forms of Notch lacking CBF1-interacting sequences we identified a Notch signaling pathway that inhibits myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts in the absence of CBF1 activation. Here we show that ligand-induced Notch signaling suppresses myogenesis in C2C12 myoblasts that express a dominant negative form of CBF1, providing additional evidence for CBF1-independent Notch signal transduction. Surprisingly mutant forms of Notch deficient in CBF1 activation are unable to antagonize MyoD activity, despite the fact that they inhibit myogenesis. Moreover, Notch-induced antagonism of MyoD requires CBF1 suggesting that the CBF1-dependent pathway mediates a cell-type-specific block in the myogenic program. However, Notch signaling in the absence of CBF1 activation blocks both myogenesis and osteogenesis, indicative of a general block in cellular differentiation. Taken together our data provide evidence for two distinct Notch signaling pathways that function to block differentiation at separate steps during the process of myogenesis in C2C12 myoblasts.     

Smurf1 facilitates myogenic differentiation and antagonizes the bone morphogenetic protein-2-induced osteoblast conversion by targeting Smad5 for degradation

Controlled proteolysis mediated by Smad ubiquitination regulatory factors (Smurfs) plays a crucial role in modulating cellular responses to signaling of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily. However, it is not clear what influences the selectivity of Smurfs in the individual signaling pathway, nor is it clear the biological function of Smurfs in vivo. Using a mouse C2C12 myoblast cell differentiation system, which is subject to control by both TGF-beta and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), here we examine the role of Smurf1 in myogenic differentiation. We show that increased expression of Smurf1 promotes myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells and blocks the BMP-induced osteogenic conversion but has no effect on the TGF-beta-induced differentiation arrest. Consistent with an inhibitory role in the BMP signaling pathway, the elevated Smurf1 markedly reduces the level of endogenous Smad5, whereas it leaves unaltered that of Smad2, Smad3, and Smad7, which are components of the TGF-beta pathway. Adding back Smad5 from a different source to the Smurf1-overexpressing cells restores the BMP-mediated osteoblast conversion. Finally, by depletion of the endogenous Smurf1 through small interfering RNA-mediated RNA interference, we demonstrate that Smurf1 is required for the myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells and plays an important regulatory role in the BMP-2-mediated osteoblast conversion.     

Tanshinone IIA enhances BMP-2-stimulated commitment of C2C12 cells into osteoblasts via p38 activation

In this study, we demonstrate a stimulatory effect of tanshinone IIA isolated from the root of Salvia miltiorrhiza on the commitment of bi-potential mesenchymal precursor C2C12 cells into osteoblasts in the presence of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2. At low concentrations, tanshinone IIA enhanced BMP-2-stimulated induction of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an early phase biomarker of osteoblast differentiation, and mRNA expression of BMPs. ALP induction was inhibited by the BMP antagonist noggin, suggesting that tanshinone IIA enhances the osteogenic activity of BMP signaling. Furthermore, considering the tanshinone IIA-mediated enhancement of BMP-2-stimulated Smad-Runx2 activities, tanshinone IIA could enhance the osteogenic activity of BMP-2 via acceleration of Smad-Runx2 activation. Additionally, pharmacologic inhibition studies suggest the possible involvement of p38 in the action of tanshinone IIA. The p38 inhibitor SB202190 strongly and dose-dependently inhibited tanshinone IIA-enhanced ALP induction. SB202190 also dose-dependently inhibited the tanshinone IIA-induced p38 activation and combined tanshinone IIA-BMP-2-induced Smad activation. In conclusion, tanshinone IIA enhances the commitment of C2C12 cells into osteoblasts and their differentiation through synergistic cross talk between tanshinone IIA-induced p38 activation and BMP-2-induced Smad activation. These activations could subsequently induce the activation of Runx2, which induces osteogenesis via regulation of the osteogenic factors BMP and ALP expression.     

Activation of RXR and RAR signaling promotes myogenic differentiation of myoblastic C2C12 cells

Differentiation of embryonic and adult myogenic progenitors undergoes a complex series of cell rearrangements and specification events which are controlled by distinct gene regulatory networks. Delineation of the molecular mechanisms that regulate skeletal muscle specification and formation should be important for understanding congenital myopathies and muscular degenerative diseases. Retinoic acid (RA) signaling plays an important role in development. However, the role of RA signaling in adult myogenic progenitors is poorly understood. Here, we investigate the role of RA signaling in regulating myogenic differentiation of myoblastic progenitor cells. Using the mouse myoblast progenitor C2C12 line as a model, we have found that the endogenous expression of most RAR and RXR isotypes is readily detected. While the nuclear receptor co-repressors are highly expressed, two of the three nuclear receptor co-activators and the enzymes involved in RA synthesis are expressed at low level or undetectable, suggesting that the RA signaling pathway may be repressed in myogenic progenitors. Using the α-myosin heavy chain promoter-driven reporter (MyHC-GLuc), we have demonstrated that either ATRA or 9CRA is able to effectively induce myogenic differentiation, which can be synergistically enhanced when both ATRA and 9CRA are used. Upon ATRA and 9CRA treatment of C2C12 cells the expression of late myogenic markers significantly increases. We have further shown that adenovirus-mediated exogenous expression of RARα and/or RXRα is able to effectively induce myogenic differentiation in a ligand-independent fashion. Morphologically, ATRA- and 9CRA-treated C2C12 cells exhibit elongated cell body and become multi-nucleated myoblasts, and even form myoblast fusion. Ultrastructural analysis under transmission electron microscope reveals that RA-treated myogenic progenitor cells exhibit an abundant presence of muscle fibers. Therefore, our results strongly suggest that RA signaling may play an important role in regulating myogenic differentiation.     

过表达miR-155抑制C2C12成肌分化

为明确miR-155在C2C12成肌分化中的作用及分子机制,本研究构建了miR-155过表达腺病毒载体,运用过表达miR-155的腺病毒感染C2C12,并诱导其成肌分化。通过形态学观察,成肌标志基因mRNA和蛋白表达水平的检测,以及双荧光素酶报告基因系统对预测的miR-155靶基因(TCF4)的验证,结果表明,C2C12细胞分化中,过表达miR-155明显降低了肌管的形成,成肌标志基因MyoG和MyHC的mRNA表达量极显著地下降(P0.01),而MyoD差异不显著(P0.05),成肌标志基因蛋白检测结果与mRNA检测结果一致;进一步研究显示miR-155与预测的TCF4基因的3'UTR 3个靶点(1487-1493,1516-1522,4532-4583)中的1个(4532-4538)结合,并发现过表达miR-155显著降低了TCF4的mRNA水平(P0.05)。表明miR-155可能通过靶向TCF4抑制C2C12成肌分化。     

A WNT/beta-catenin signaling activator, R-spondin, plays positive regulatory roles during skeletal myogenesis

R-spondins (RSPOs) are a recently characterized family of secreted proteins that activate WNT/β-catenin signaling. In this study, we investigated the potential roles of the RSPO proteins during myogenic differentiation. Overexpression of the Rspo1 gene or administration of recombinant RSPO2 protein enhanced mRNA and protein expression of a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) class myogenic determination factor, MYF5, in both C2C12 myoblasts and primary satellite cells, whereas MYOD or PAX7 expression was not affected. RSPOs also promoted myogenic differentiation and induced hypertrophic myotube formation in C2C12 cells. In addition, Rspo2 and Rspo3 gene knockdown by RNA interference significantly compromised MYF5 expression, myogenic differentiation, and myotube formation. Furthermore, Myf5 expression was reduced in the developing limbs of mouse embryos lacking the Rspo2 gene. Finally, we demonstrated that blocking of WNT/β-catenin signaling by DKK1 or a dominant-negative form of TCF4 reversed MYF5 expression, myogenic differentiation, and hypertrophic myotube formation induced by RSPO2, indicating that RSPO2 exerts its activity through the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway. Our results provide strong evidence that RSPOs are key positive regulators of skeletal myogenesis acting through the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway.     

Cyclic mechanical stretch stimulates the proliferation of C2C12 myoblasts and inhibits their differentiation via prolonged activation of p38 MAPK

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play an indispensable role in activation of the myogenic program, which is responsive to mechanical stimulation. Although there is accumulating evidence of mechanical force-mediated cellular responses, the role of MAPK in regulating the myogenic process in myoblasts exposed to cyclic stretch is unclear. Cyclic stretch induced the proliferation of C2C12 myoblasts and inhibited their differentiation into myotubes. In particular, it induced persistent phosphorylation of p38 kinase, and decreased the level of phosphorylation of extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK). Partial inhibition of p38 phosphorylation increased cellular levels of MyoD and p-ERK in stretched C2C12 cells, along with increased myotube formation. Treatment with 10 microM PD98059 prevented myogenin expression in response to a low dose of SB203580 (3 microM) in the stretched cells, suggesting that adequate ERK activation is also needed to allow the cells to differentiate into myotubes. These results suggest that cyclic stretch inhibits the myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells by activating p38-mediated signaling and inhibiting ERK phosphorylation. We conclude that p38 kinase, not ERK, is the upstream signal transducer regulating cellular responses to mechanical stretch in skeletal muscle cells.     

SIRT1 inhibits adipogenesis and promotes myogenic differentiation in C3H10T1/2 pluripotent cells by regulating Wnt signaling

Background

The directed differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is tightly controlled by a complex network. Wnt signaling pathways have an important function in controlling the fate of MSCs. However, the mechanism through which Wnt/β-catenin signaling is regulated in differentiation of MSCs remains unknown. SIRT1 plays an important role in the regulation of MSCs differentiation.

Results

This study aimed to determine the effect of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) on adipogenesis and myogenic differentiation of C3H10T1/2 cells. First, the MSC commitment and differentiation model was established by using 5-azacytidine. Using the established model, C3H10T1/2 cells were treated with SIRT1 activator/inhibitor during differentiation. The results showed that resveratrol inhibits adipogenic differentiation and improves myogenic differentiation, whereas nicotinamide promotes adipogenic differentiation. Notably, during commitment, resveratrol blocked adipocyte formation and promoted myotubes differentiation, whereas nicotinamide enhanced adipogenic potential of C3H10T1/2 cells. Furthermore, resveratrol elevated the expression of Cyclin D1 and β-catenin in the early stages. The luciferase assay showed that knockdown SIRT1 inhibits Wnt/β-catenin signaling, while resveratrol treatment or overexpression SIRT1 activates Wnt/β-catenin signaling. SIRT1 suppressed the expression of Wnt signaling antagonists sFRP2 and DACT1. Knockdown SIRT1 promoted adipogenic potential of C3H10T1/2 cells, whereas overexpression SIRT1 inhibited adipogenic differentiation and promoted myogenic differentiation.

Conclusions

Together, our results suggested that SIRT1 inhibits adipogenesis and stimulates myogenic differentiation by activating Wnt signaling.

     

Menin expression modulates mesenchymal cell commitment to the myogenic and osteogenic lineages

Menin plays an established role in the differentiation of mesenchymal cells to the osteogenic lineage. Conversely, whether Menin influences the commitment of mesenschymal cells to the myogenic lineage, despite expression in the developing somite was previously unclear. We observed that Menin is down-regulated in C2C12 and C3H10T1/2 mesenchymal cells when muscle differentiation is induced. Moreover, maintenance of Menin expression by constitutive ectopic expression inhibited muscle cell differentiation. Reduction of Menin expression by siRNA technology results in precocious muscle differentiation and concomitantly attenuates BMP-2 induced osteogenesis. Reduced Menin expression antagonizes BMP-2 and TGF-β1 mediated inhibition of myogenesis. Furthermore, Menin was found to directly interact with and potentiate the transactivation properties of Smad3 in response to TGF-β1. Finally in concert with these observations, tissue-specific inactivation of Men1 in Pax3-expressing somite precursor cells leads to a patterning defect of rib formation and increased muscle mass in the intercostal region. These data invoke a pivotal role for Menin in the competence of mesenchymal cells to respond to TGF-β1 and BMP-2 signals. Thus, by modulating cytokine responsiveness Menin functions to alter the balance of multipotent mesenchymal cell commitment to the osteogenic or myogenic lineages.     

Effect of miR-143-3p on C2C12 myoblast differentiation

MicroRNAs are a class of 18–22 nucleotide non-coding RNAs that modulate gene expression by associating with the 3′ untranslated regions of mRNAs. A large number of microRNAs are involved in the regulation of myoblast differentiation, many of which remain undiscovered. In this study, we found that miR-143-3p was upregulated during C2C12 myoblast differentiation and over-expression of miR-143-3p significantly inhibited the relative expression levels of MyoD, MyoG, myf5, and MyHC genes, especially in the later stages of differentiation. In addition, miR-143-3p inhibited expression of genes involved in the endogenous Wnt signaling pathway during C2C12 myoblast differentiation, including Wnt5a, LRP5, Axin2, and β-catenin. These results indicate that miR-143-3p represents a new myogenic differentiation-associated microRNA that can inhibit C2C12 myoblast differentiation, especially in the later stages of differentiation.     

Osteogenic properties of human myogenic progenitor cells

Here, we identified human myogenic progenitor cells coexpressing Pax7, a marker of muscle satellite cells and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase, a marker of osteoblasts, in regenerating muscle. To determine whether human myogenic progenitor cells are able to act as osteoprogenitor cells, we cultured both primary and immortalized progenitor cells derived from the healthy muscle of a nondystrophic woman. The undifferentiated myogenic progenitors spontaneously expressed two osteoblast-specific proteins, bone-specific alkaline phosphatase and Runx2, and were able to undergo terminal osteogenic differentiation without exposure to an exogenous inductive agent such as bone morphogenetic proteins. They also expressed the muscle lineage-specific proteins Pax7 and MyoD, and lost their osteogenic characteristics in association with terminal muscle differentiation. Both myoblastic and osteoblastic properties are thus simultaneously expressed in the human myogenic cell lineage prior to commitment to muscle differentiation. In addition, C3 transferase, a specific inhibitor of Rho GTPase, blocked myogenic but not osteogenic differentiation of human myogenic progenitor cells. These data suggest that human myogenic progenitor cells retain the capacity to act as osteoprogenitor cells that form ectopic bone spontaneously, and that Rho signaling is involved in a critical switch between myogenesis and osteogenesis in the human myogenic cell lineage.     

激活Shh信号通路促进BMP9诱导的小鼠成肌细胞C2C12向成骨分化

近年来骨组织工程技术迅猛发展,小鼠成肌细胞C2C12因其来源广泛等优点可望成为有效的种子细胞应用于组织工程. 然而,对于C2C12细胞的成骨分化机制仍需深入研究. 为了观察Sonic hedgehog（Shh）信号通路对骨形态发生蛋白9（bone morphogenetic proteins 9,BMP9）诱导的C2C12细胞成骨分化的影响,构建过表达腺病毒Ad Shh,并作用于BMP9处理的C2C12细胞,检测碱性磷酸酶（alkaline phosphatase , ALP）的变化,茜素红S染色检测钙盐沉积,RT PCR检测Shh、骨桥蛋白(osteopontin,OPN)、骨钙素（osteocalcin,OCN）、Runx2、Dlx5、Id1和Id2基因表达,Western印迹检测Shh、OPN、OCN、Runx2和Dlx5的蛋白质表达,Micro-CT和H&E染色检测裸鼠皮下异位成骨包块情况. 结果表明,活化Shh信号通路可促进BMP9诱导的C2C12细胞早晚期成骨分化,以及裸鼠皮下异位成骨.体内外实验证明,Shh信号通路能促进BMP9诱导小鼠成肌细胞C2C12向成骨分化.     

siRNA沉默Myh3基因抑制C2C12细胞糖酵解

肌球蛋白重链3(myosin heavy chain 3,Myh3)基因为肌肉细胞分化的标志基因,调节肌肉细胞能量的利用,但其是否会影响肌肉细胞不同状态下的糖酵解过程尚鲜有报道。本文以成肌和成脂分化不同阶段的小鼠C2C12细胞为模型,利用qRT-PCR方法研究Myh3与糖酵解相关基因Pkm(M-type pyruvate kinse)、Prkag3(protein kinase adenosine monophosphate-activated γ3-subunit)和Gsk3β(glycogen synthase kinase-3β)的表达模式。发现在C2C12细胞成肌分化过程中,Myh3与糖酵解基因Prkag3和Pkm的相对表达趋势基本一致,都呈现相对表达水平先上升,分化第2 d达到峰值,之后下降的趋势;糖原合酶抑制基因Gsk3β的表达趋势相对平稳。而在C2C12细胞成脂分化过程中,Myh3依然与糖酵解基因Prkag3和Pkm的相对表达趋势基本一致,相对表达量逐渐上升,在分化第8 d达到最高值;糖原合酶抑制基因Gsk3β的表达保持稳定状态。在C2C12细胞成肌分化状态下,qRT-PCR和Western 印迹检测干扰Myh3对细胞糖酵解相关基因Pkm、Prkag3和Gsk3β mRNA和蛋白质表达的影响。结果显示,干扰Myh3后,糖酵解基因Pkm和Prkag3的mRNA表达量极显著降低(P<0.01),糖原合酶抑制基因Gsk3β的mRNA表达无明显变化(P>0.05);Myh3干扰组中Myh3和Pkm的蛋白质水平显著低于空白组和NC组细胞。在C2C12细胞成脂分化状态下,干扰Myh3,糖原合酶抑制基因Gsk3β和糖酵解基因Prkag3的mRNA表达量极显著升高(P<0.01),糖酵解基因Pkm的mRNA表达下降;Myh3干扰组中Myh3和Pkm的蛋白质水平也低于空白组和NC组细胞。综合以上研究,C2C12细胞成肌和成脂状态下糖酵解水平存在明显差异,Myh3与酵解基因的表达模式相似,进一步研究发现,干扰Myh3可以抑制C2C12细胞成肌状态下的糖酵解,不影响糖原合成。与成肌状态不同,在C2C12细胞成脂状态下干扰Myh3,抑制了糖原合成和糖酵解。