Plants under Climatic Stress: II. Low Temperature, High Light Effects on Chloroplast Ultrastructure

Mesophyll chloroplasts of the C₄-pathway grasses Sorghum and Paspalum and of the C₃-pathway legume soybean undergo ultrastructural changes under moderate light intensities (170 w·m⁻², 400-700 nanometers) at a tme when photosynthesis is much reduced by low temperature (10 C). The pattern of ultrastructural change was similar in these species, despite some differences in the initial sites of low temperature action on photosynthesis and differences in their mechanisms of CO₂ fixation. Starch grains in the chloroplasts rapidly reduce in size when chilling stress is applied. At or before the time starch grains completely disappear the membranes of the individual stromal thylakoids close together, reducing the intraspace between them while the chloroplast as a whole begins to swell. Extensive granal stacking appears to hold the thylakoids in position for some time, causing initial swelling to occur in the zone of the peripheral reticulum, when present. At more advanced stages of swelling the thylakoid system unravels while the thylakoid intraspaces dilate markedly. Initial thylakoid intraspace contraction is tentatively ascribed to an increase in the transmembrane hydrogen ion gradient causing movement of cations and undissociated organic acids from the thylakoid intraspace to the stroma. Chloroplast swelling may be caused by a hold-up of some osmotically active photosynthetic product in the chloroplast stroma. After granal unraveling and redilation of the thylakoid intraspaces, chloroplasts appear similar to those isolated in low salt hypotonic media. At the initial stages of stress-induced ultrastructural change, a marked gradient in degree of chloroplast swelling is seen within and between cells, being most pronounced near the surface of the leaf directly exposed to light.     

不同光照强度对马蹄金叶的特征及总黄酮含量的影响

以马蹄金叶为研究对象,利用遮荫网设置光照梯度(透光率分别为:对照100%、76.19%、59.27%、38.09%),对其形态特征及总黄酮含量进行测定和分析.结果表明:(1)随着光照强度的降低,马蹄金叶片的长度、宽度及厚度均表现出先增大后减小的趋势,在76.19%透光率下达到最大值;叶柄长度随着光强的减弱而增长,叶片的形态并未发生显著变化.(2)光照强度对马蹄金叶片总黄酮含量有影响,透光率为76.19%时,马蹄金叶中总黄酮含量最高.分析表明76.19%的透光率有利于马蹄金的生长并能提高马蹄金叶中总黄酮的含量.     

叶片生长进程中气孔发育对叶温调节的影响

鉴于气孔发育影响气孔导度和蒸腾速率,推测气孔发育可能影响叶温调节。为验证这一假设并阐述相关规律,在控光和控温条件下研究了冬青卫矛和华北紫丁香气孔发育、气孔导度、蒸腾速率及其与叶温的关系。结果表明,伴随冬青卫矛、华北紫丁香叶片生长气孔逐渐增大,但气孔密度下降;在此过程中,气孔导度和蒸腾速率逐步提高,而叶片温度降低;尽管冬青卫矛和华北紫丁香叶片的气孔密度和大小差异很小,但华北紫丁香近轴侧和远轴侧均有气孔分布,而冬青卫矛则只有远轴侧分布气孔,且相同条件下华北紫丁香的气孔导度和蒸腾速率高、叶温低。因此,气孔发育能够促进气孔导度和蒸腾速率提高,有助于降低叶温;近轴侧气孔可能更有利于蒸腾降温。     

Leaf Growth in Phaseolus vulgaris: 2. Temperature Effects and the Light Factor

Results are reported for two experiments in which bean plantswere grown in a range of daylengths from i hour to continuousillumination at temperatures of 15^° C and 25^° C. Markeddifferences in total leaf area and in areas of individual leaveswere found, and these are related in a quadratic fashion withtotal radiation received per day. With high levels of radiationa decrease in leaf area was noted, and this is not explicablein terms of a simple nutritional hypothesis. There are pronouncedeffects of total radiation on specific leaf area but the mechanismby which these effects are brought about is not clear. The mostimportant influence of temperature on the expansion of the leafsurface appear to be: firstly, by controlling the rate at whichleaves unfold from the stem apex; and secondly, by controllingthe partition of dry matter between the leaves and the restof the plant. No effects of daylength on vegetative developmentwere found.     

The Effect of Leaf Water Potential, Leaf Temperature and Light Intensity on Leaf Diffusion Resistance and the Transpiration of Leaves of Malus sylvestris

The relationship between leaf resistance to water vapour diffusion and each of the factors leaf water potential, light intensity and leaf temperature was determined for leaves on seedling apple trees (Malus sylvestris Mill. cv. Granny Smith) in the laboratory. Leaf cuticular resistance was also determined and transpiration was measured on attached leaves for a range of conditions. Leaf resistance was shown to be independent of water potential until potential fell below — 19 bars after which leaf resistance increased rapidly. Exposure of leaves to CO₂-free air extended the range for which resistance was independent of water potential to — 30 bars. The light requirement for minimum leaf resistance was 10 to 20 W m^?2 and at light intensities exceeding these, leaf resistance was unaffected by light intensity. Optimum leaf temperature for minimum diffusion resistance was 23 ± 2°C. The rate of change measured in leaf resistance in leaves given a sudden change in leaf temperature increased as the magnitude of the temperature change increased. For a sudden change of 1°C in leaf temperature, diffusion resistance changed at a rate of 0.01 s cm^?1 min^?1 whilst for a 9°C leaf temperature change, diffusion resistance changed at a rate of 0.1 s cm^?1 min^?1. Cuticular resistance of these leaves was 125 s cm^?1 which is very high compared with resistances for open stomata of 1.5 to 4 s cm^?1 and 30 to 35 s cm^?1 for stomata closed in the dark. Transpiration was measured in attached apple leaves enclosed in a leaf chamber and exposed to a range of conditions of leaf temperature and ambient water vapour density. Peak transpiration of approximately 5 × 10^?6 g cm^?2 s^?1 occurred at a vapour density gradient from the leaf to the air of 12 to 14 g m^?3 after which transpiration declined due presumably to increased stomatal resistance. Leaves in CO₂-free air attained a peak transpiration of 11 × 10^?6 g cm^?2 s^?1 due to lower values of leaf resistance in CO₂ free air. Transpiration then declined in these leaves due to development of an internal leaf resistance (of up to 2 s cm^?1). The internal resistance was masked in leaves at normal CO₂ concentrations by the increase in stomatal resistance.     

Response of Photosynthesis and Dark-CO2-Fixation to Light, CO2 and Temperature in Leaf Slices under Osmotic Stress

Photosynthesis and dark-CO₂-fixation were measured in vacuum-infiltratedleaf slices from the mesophyte Spinacia oleracea and the Mediterraneanxerophyte Arbutus unedo under hypertonic stress as a functionof light-intensity, CO₂-concentration and temperature, in theabsence of stomatal control. Under hypertonic stress, photosynthesis and dark-CO₂-fixationwere inhibited in leaf tissue from both plants. 50% inhibitionof photosynthesis in spinach occurred at about –3.0 MPa,and of dark-CO₂-fixation at about –3.5 MPa. 50% inhibitionof photosynthesis in Arbutus unedo was reached at about –4.0MPa (sorbitol as osmoticum). In both plants, osmotic dehydration decreased the slope andthe maximum of the CO₂- and light-response curves. The slopeof the CO₂-response curve of dark-CO₂-fixation was also decreasedunder hypertonic stress, but the inhibition of the maximal fixationrate was less obvious than for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis and dark-CO₂-fixation differed significantlyin their response to high temperature: under light- and CO₂-saturation,photosynthesis of spinach leaf slices had a temperature optimumat about 37 °C, and it was nearly completely inhibited at45 °C. The rate of dark-CO₂-fixation, however, increasedcontinuously up to 45 °C. Osmotic dehydration increasedthe resistance of photosynthesis to high temperatures. Key words: CO₂ response, Heat stress, Light response, Photosynthesis, Water stress     

高温胁迫下不同光强对‘赤霞珠’葡萄PSII活性及恢复的影响

本文研究了高温与不同光强结合处理对‘赤霞珠’葡萄叶片PSII活性及恢复的影响。结果表明,高温黑暗处理（40℃,0μmaol·m-2．s-1）导致叶片PSII最大光化学效率（Fv/Fm）、反应中心吸收的光能用于电子传递的量子产额（ψEo）与单位反应中心光能的传递（ETo/RC）降低明显,且无恢复趋势,K点相对荧光（Vk）、单位反应中心光能的吸收（ABS／RC）与捕获（TRo／RC）显著升高。高温弱光处理（40℃,200μmol·m-2．s-1）后的叶片PSII活性明显恢复,ETo／RC降低明显,TRo/RC无显著变化。高温强光（40℃,1600μmol·m-2．S-1）处理导致单位面积有活性反应中心数量（RC/CSm）抑制程度最大,恢复程度较低。实验结果说明,高温处理下黑暗对葡萄PSII功能活性及恢复均会造成抑制,而弱光可以显著缓解高温对葡萄叶片的胁迫作用,并促进PSII的恢复,强光导致胁迫下的PSII功能抑制最明显。     

Synergistic and Antagonistic Effects of Combined Subzero Temperature and High Pressure on Inactivation of Escherichia coli

The combined effects of subzero temperature and high pressure on the inactivation of Escherichia coli K12TG1 were investigated. Cells of this bacterial strain were exposed to high pressure (50 to 450 MPa, 10-min holding time) at two temperatures (−20°C without freezing and 25°C) and three water activity levels (a_w) (0.850, 0.992, and ca. 1.000) achieved with the addition of glycerol. There was a synergistic interaction between subzero temperature and high pressure in their effects on microbial inactivation. Indeed, to achieve the same inactivation rate, the pressures required at −20°C (in the liquid state) were more than 100 MPa less than those required at 25°C, at pressures in the range of 100 to 300 MPa with an a_w of 0.992. However, at pressures greater than 300 MPa, this trend was reversed, and subzero temperature counteracted the inactivation effect of pressure. When the amount of water in the bacterial suspension was increased, the synergistic effect was enhanced. Conversely, when the a_w was decreased by the addition of solute to the bacterial suspension, the baroprotective effect of subzero temperature increased sharply. These results support the argument that water compression is involved in the antimicrobial effect of high pressure. From a thermodynamic point of view, the mechanical energy transferred to the cell during the pressure treatment can be characterized by the change in volume of the system. The amount of mechanical energy transferred to the cell system is strongly related to cell compressibility, which depends on the water quantity in the cytoplasm.     

Spectral Filters and Temperature Effects on the Growth and Development of Chrysanthemums under Low Light Integral

The influence of altered light quality on the growth and development of chrysanthemum (cvs. Snowdon and Bright Golden Ann), was investigated in three different glasshouse temperatures i.e. 15, 20 or 24°C under low light levels. Five different colour filters i.e. blue and red absorbing (088), Blue absorbing (101), two partially blue absorbing (109 and 110) and Red absorbing (117) were tested, with clear polythene as a control. As in high light conditions, filters as well as temperature under low light levels significantly affected different growth parameters. Filters and temperatures significantly affected plant height and internode length, indicating that in chrysanthemum these were regulated by the action of phytochrome as well as a blue acting photoreceptor (cryptochrome). Time to flowering was affected by a combined action of phytochrome and cryptochrome since filters with blue transmission and high phytochrome photoequilibrium resulted in early flowering. The data were subjected to multiple regression and simple models were constructed to predict the influence of spectral quality on plant height, internode length and time to flowering in chrysanthemum. The models were then applied to simulate the potential benefits spectral filters used for green house cladding and regulation of plant growth under them.     

抗坏血酸对高温胁迫下猕猴桃苗抗热性相关生理指标的影响

以美味猕猴桃组培苗品种秦美为试材,研究抗坏血酸（AsA）对高温胁迫下猕猴桃苗抗热性相关生理指标影响的结果表明,抗坏血酸可抑制高温胁迫下猕猴叶细胞膜透性和丙二醛（MDA）含量的增大,但增强超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、过氧化氢酶（CAT）、过氧化物酶（POD）和抗坏血酸过氧化物酶（APX）的活性。     

Effect of Light Intensity, Carbon Dioxide Concentration, and Leaf Temperature on Gas Exchange of Spray Carnation Plants

The rates of CO₂ assimilation by potted spray carnation plants(cv. Cerise Royalette) were determined over a wide range oflight intensities (45–450 W m^–2 PAR), CO₂ concentrations(200–3100 vpm), and leaf temperatures (5–35 °C).Assimilation rates varied with these factors in a way similarto the response of single leaves of other temperate crops, althoughthe absolute values were lower. The optimal temperature forCO₂ assimilation was between 5 and 10 °C at 45 W m^–2PAR but it increased progressively with increasing light intensityand CO₂ concentration up to 27 °C at 450 W m^–2 PARand 3100 vpm CO₂ as expressed by the equation TOpt = –6.47-h 2.336 In G + 0.031951 where C is CO₂ concentration in vpmand I is photo-synthetically active radiation in W m^–2.CO₂ enrichment also increased stomatal resistance, especiallyat high light intensities. The influence of these results on optimalization of temperaturesand CO₂ concentrations for carnation crops subjected to dailylight variation, and the discrepancy between optimal temperaturesfor growth and net photosynthesis, are discussed briefly     

Effects of Light, Temperature, and pH Value on Aflatoxin Production In Vitro

In the complete absence of light, an isolate of Aspergillus flavus produced up to 170,000 pg aflatoxin per g, whereas the incubation of the fungus in light caused a reduction (35,000 pg/g) of the toxin synthesis.     

Barley Leaf Unfolding under Mixtures of Red and Blue Light

Barley leaf unfolding is stimulated by mixed red and blue light. However, the stimulation from mixed light is attenuated when compared with the stimulation from red light alone, particularly for low intensities of the mixed light and for short irradiation times. For higher light intensity mixtures of red and blue light and for longer irradiation times, the blue light enhances the stimulation from red light and vice versa. This supports the assumption that the blue light effect in this case is also mediated by the phytochrome system. Furthermore the present findings point to the possibility of competitive reactions caused by red and blue light in the excitation of phytochrome.     

Effects of Cycloheximide and Light on Leaf Senescence in Maize and Hydrangea

The senescence of maize and hydrangea leaves after detachmentand darkening was studied in terms of the loss of chlorophylland protein. Chlorophyll contents of the detached leaves decreasedin the dark in both plants. Cycloheximide at 0.1 mM effectivelyinhibited the loss of chlorophyll in maize, but did not do soin hydrangea. Continuous irradiation with white light of 4.6Wm^–2 prevented the loss of chlorophyll in hydrangea leaves,while it caused bleaching of maize leaves. Reducing agents suchas ascorbic acid and glutathione did not prevent the bleachingby light. In maize leaves, the amount of protein decreased inthe dark more slowly than that of chlorophyll, and cycloheximideslightly prevented the protein decrease. Continuous light irradiationof 4.6 Wm^–2 delayed the loss of protein more effectivelythan cycloheximide did. (Received January 31, 1981; Accepted May 21, 1981)     

Environmental Effects on Transpiration and Leaf Water Potential in Avocado

A field study was conducted to determine how atmospheric and edaphic conditions influenced the water relations of avocado trees (Persea americana Mill. cv. Bacon). With high and low levels of incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm wave length), and either wet or dry soil, leaf conductance decreased as the absolute humidity difference from leaf to air increased. For any water stress treatment, conductance was higher at high PAR than at low PAR. Both conductance and transpiration were higher in well-watered trees than in stressed trees, and in prestressed trees levels were intermediate to unstressed and stressed trees. A model for water flux through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum was used to examine the relationship of leaf xylem pressure potential to transpiration in well-watered trees and in trees stressed by dry soil. There was a close linkage between leaf xylem pressure potential and transpiration in unstressed and previously stressed trees with high or low PAR, i.e. similar potentials occurred with equivalent transpiration regardless of previous treatment or time of day. In stressed trees, xylem pressure potential was lower than in unstressed trees both during the day and night, and at a given transpiration rate the potential was lower after 1400 h than before that time. The model indicated that in stressed trees xylem pressure potential was uncoupled from transpiration, presumably because of altered resistance in the soil-root portion of the transport system.     

叶片发育影响紫罗勒花青素的强光诱导和激发能分配

通过气体交换、叶绿素荧光、反射光谱和显微技术等研究了叶片发育与花青素强光诱导的关系及其对激发能分配的影响。结果表明,遮荫导致紫罗勒叶片变薄,花青素含量显著降低。当弱光下生长的植株转入强光后,转光前发育成熟的叶片花青素含量很低,而此后强光下发育成熟的叶片花青素含量高。转强光后,弱光下发育成熟的叶片光合速率低、光抑制严重,且天线耗散增强;强光下发育成熟的叶片净光合速率高,光抑制程度轻,天线耗散低。因此,我们认为叶片发育影响紫罗勒花青素合成的强光诱导,而转强光后花青素的诱导差异进一步改变了光合作用过程中的激发能分配。     

Combined Effects of High Hydrostatic Pressure and Temperature for Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores

Spores of Bacillus anthracis are known to be extremely resistant to heat treatment, irradiation, desiccation, and disinfectants. To determine inactivation kinetics of spores by high pressure, B. anthracis spores of a Sterne strain-derived mutant deficient in the production of the toxin components (strain RP42) were exposed to pressures ranging from 280 to 500 MPa for 10 min to 6 h, combined with temperatures ranging from 20 to 75°C. The combination of heat and pressure resulted in complete destruction of B. anthracis spores, with a D value (exposure time for 90% inactivation of the spore population) of approximately 4 min after pressurization at 500 MPa and 75°C, compared to 160 min at 500 MPa and 20°C and 348 min at atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) and 75°C. The use of high pressure for spore inactivation represents a considerable improvement over other available methods of spore inactivation and could be of interest for antigenic spore preparation.     

Effects of Light and Temperature on Flower-opening of Pharbitis nil

Flower buds of Pharbitis nil cut from plants growing in thefield opened rapidly when kept in darkness for 8 hr followedby continuous light at 20–25°C, but those kept indarkness for 4 hr opened promptly oniy when the temperatureduring the following light period was kept at 23°C or lower.Buds exposed to continuous light at 25°C did not open, butthose exposed to continuous light at 23°C opened slowly.At a lower temperature, the buds opened rapidly even in continuouslight. When the buds were placed in darkness at 25°C at13:30, 17:30 and 21:30 (artificial light from 17:30 to 21:30),they opened about 10 hr after the onset of darkness regardlessof the time of the onset of darkness, but when the buds werekept at 20°C in light from 13:30, 17:30 and 21:30, theyopened at 3:30–5:30 regardless of the time of transferto the lower temperature. The biological clock which controlsthe time of flower-opening is suggested to be easily reset bya light-off signal, but not by a shift from a normal to lowertemperature (20°C). At the lower temperature, the time offlower-opening probably is determined by the time of the latestpreceding light-off (or light-on) signal. ¹Dedicated to Professor Dr. Erwin Biinning on the occasion ofhis 75th birthday. (Received October 23, 1980; Accepted December 15, 1980)