Decolorization and Detoxification of Textile Dyes with a Laccase from Trametes hirsuta

Trametes hirsuta and a purified laccase from this organism were able to degrade triarylmethane, indigoid, azo, and anthraquinonic dyes. Initial decolorization velocities depended on the substituents on the phenolic rings of the dyes. Immobilization of the T. hirsuta laccase on alumina enhanced the thermal stabilities of the enzyme and its tolerance against some enzyme inhibitors, such as halides, copper chelators, and dyeing additives. The laccase lost 50% of its activity at 50 mM NaCl while the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of the immobilized enzyme was 85 mM. Treatment of dyes with the immobilized laccase reduced their toxicities (based on the oxygen consumption rate of Pseudomonas putida) by up to 80% (anthraquinonic dyes). Textile effluents decolorized with T. hirsuta or the laccase were used for dyeing. Metabolites and/or enzyme protein strongly interacted with the dyeing process indicated by lower staining levels (K/S) values than obtained with a blank using water. However, when the effluents were decolorized with immobilized laccase, they could be used for dyeing and acceptable color differences (ΔE*) below 1.1 were measured for most dyes.     

Redox-mediated decolorization of synthetic dyes by fungal laccases

Laccases from the lignin-degrading basidiomycetes Trametes versicolor, Polyporus pinisitus and the ascomycete Myceliophthora thermophila were found to decolorize synthetic dyes to different extents. Differences were attributed to the specific catalytic properties of the individual enzymes and to the structure of the dyes. Due to their higher oxidative capacities, the laccases from the two basidiomycetes decolorized dyes more efficiently than that of the ascomycete. The azo dye Direct Red 28, the indigoid Acid Blue 74 and anthraquinonic dyes were directly enzymatically decolorized within 16 h. The addition of 2 mM of the redox-mediator 1-hydroxybenzotriazole further improved and facilitated the decolorization of all nine dyes investigated. Laccases decolorized dyes both individually and in complex mixtures in the presence of bentonite or immobilized in alginate beads. Our data suggest that laccase/mediator systems are effective biocatalysts for the treatment of effluents from textile, dye or printing industries.     

Potential of Trametes trogii culture fluids and its purified laccase for the decolorization of different types of recalcitrant dyes without the addition of redox mediators

Trametes trogii BAFC 463 culture fluids (containing 110 U ml⁻¹ laccase; 0.94 U ml⁻¹ manganese peroxidase), as well as its purified laccase were capable of decolorizing azoic, indigoid, triphenylmethane, anthraquinonic and heterocyclic dyes, in the absence of redox mediators. Six dyes: RBBR, Indigo Carmine, Xylidine, Malachite Green, Gentian Violet and Bromophenol Blue were almost completely degraded (more than 85% decolorization after 1 d) by either laccase or T. trogii itself in culture, proving the role of the enzyme in dye decolorization. The purified laccase also decolorized 65% of Fast Blue RR and 30% of Azure B and Methylene Blue after 24 h. The use of redox mediators significantly increased the decolorization rates (90% decolorization of Azure B after 1 h). 1-hydroxybenzotriazole resulted the best redox mediator, but the natural mediator p-hydroxybenzoic acid also demonstrated its efficiency for dye decolorization. Due to their ability to decolorize recalcitrant dyes without addition of redox mediators, high laccase activities, high thermostability and efficient decolorization at 70 °C and pH 7.0, even in the presence of high concentrations of heavy metals (100 mM Cu⁺², Pb⁺² or Cd⁺²) or in a synthetic dyebath, T. trogii culture fluids could be effectively used to decolorize synthetic dyes from effluents.     

Hydroxybenzotriazole increases the range of textile dyes decolorized by immobilized laccase

Laccase from Coriolopsis gallica UAMH8260 was immobilized on activated agarose and tested for repeated decolorization of industrial dyes. Immobilized enzyme retained 85% of the initial activity after 10 cycles, and 70% after 3 months of intermittant use in the decolorization of Reactive Blue 198 dye. Free laccase decolorized 13 of 38 industrial dyes tested but, in the presence of 1 mM 1-hydroxybenzotriazole as a free radical mediator, the enzyme decolorized 26 of the 38 dyes increasing both the range and rate of decolorization. Immobilized laccase showed a higher thermal stability at 70 °C than free enzyme but no increased resistance to organic solvents.     

Decolorization of reactive dyes by a thermostable laccase produced by Ganoderma lucidum in solid state culture

Dye decolorizing potential of the white rot fungus Ganoderma lucidum KMK2 was demonstrated for recalcitrant textile dyes. G. lucidum produced laccase as the dominant lignolytic enzyme during solid state fermentation (SSF) of wheat bran (WB), a natural lignocellulosic substrate. Crude enzyme shows excellent decolorization activity to anthraquinone dye Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR) without redox mediator whereas diazo dye Remazol Black-5 (RB-5) requires a redox mediator. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) of crude enzyme confirms that the laccase enzyme was the major enzyme involved in decolorization of either dyes. Native and SDS-PAGE indicates that the presence of single laccase with molecular weight of 43 kDa. N-Hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) at a concentration of 1 mM was found as the best redox mediator. RB-5 (50 mg l^−l) was decolorized by 62% and 77.4% within 1 and 2 h, respectively by the crude laccase (25 U ml⁻¹). RBBR (50 mg l^−l) was decolorized by 90% within 20 h, however, it was more efficient in presence of HBT showing 92% decolorization within 2 h. Crude laccase showed high thermostability and maximum decolorization activity at 60 °C and pH 4.0. The decolorization was completely inhibited by the laccase inhibitor sodium azide (0.5 mM). Enzyme inactivation method is a good method which averts the undesirable color formation in the reaction mixture after decolorization. High thermostability and efficient decolorization suggest that this crude enzyme could be effectively used to decolorize the synthetic dyes from effluents.     

Immobilized laccase for decolourization of Reactive Black 5 dyeing effluent

Reactive Black 5 industrial dyeing effluent was decolourized by free and immobilized laccase. The stability of the enzyme (194 h free and 79 h immobilized) depended on the dyeing liquor composition and the chemical structure of the dye. In the decolourization experiments with immobilized laccase, two phenomenons were observed – decolourization due to adsorption on the support (79%) and dye degradation due to the enzyme action (4%). Dyeing in the enzymatically recycled effluent provided consistency of the colour with both bright and dark dyes.     

Purification and characterization of laccase produced by a white rot fungus Pleurotus sajor-caju under submerged culture condition and its potential in decolorization of azo dyes

An extracellular laccase was isolated and purified from Pleurotus sajor-caju grown in submerged culture in a bioreactor, and used to investigate its ability to decolorize three azo dyes. The extracellular laccase production was enhanced up to 2.5-fold in the medium amended with xylidine (1 mM). Purification was carried out using ammonium sulfate (70% w/v), DEAE-cellulose, and Sephadex G-100 column chromatography. The enzyme was purified up to 10.3-fold from the initial protein preparation with an overall yield of 53%. The purified laccase was monomeric with an apparent molecular mass of 61.0 kDa. The purified enzyme exerted its optimal activity with 2,2-azino–bis(3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonate (ABTS) and oxidized various lignin-related phenols. The catalytic efficiencies k _cat/K _m determined for ABTS and syringaldazine were 9.2×10⁵ and 8.7×10⁵, respectively. The optimum pH and temperature for the purified enzyme was 5.0 and 40 °C, respectively. Sodium azide completely inhibited the laccase activity. The absorption spectrum revealed type 1 and type 3 copper signals. The purified enzyme decolorized azo dyes such as acid red 18, acid Black 1, and direct blue 71 up to 90, 87, and 72%, respectively. Decolorization ability of P. sajor-caju laccase suggests that this enzyme could be used for decolorization of industrial effluents.     

Biodecolorization of azo,anthraquinonic and triphenylmethane dyes by white-rot fungi and a laccase-secreting engineered strain

One laccase-secreting engineered strain and four white-rot fungi were tested for their capacity to decolorize nine dyes that could be classified as azo, anthraquinonic and triphenylmethane dyes. Trametes versicolor was the most efficient of the tested strains under these experimental conditions. Anthraquinonic dyes were decolorized more easily than the other two types. Small structural differences among the dyes could significantly affect decolorization. None of the strains showed lignin peroxidase or veratryl alcohol oxidase activity. None of the dyes were decolorized completely by laccase alone. It is likely that other phenoloxidases, such as Mn-dependent and versatile peroxidase, were also involved in decolorization of the dyes.     

Partially purified bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) peroxidase catalyzed decolorization of textile and other industrially important dyes

The aim of this study was to evaluate the enzymatic action of partially purified bitter gourd peroxidase for the degradation/decolorization of complex aromatic structures. Twenty-one dyes, with a wide spectrum of chemical groups, currently being used by the textile and other important industries have been selected for the study. Here, for the first time we have shown peroxidases from Momordica charantia (300 EU/gm of vegetable) to be highly effective in decolorizing industrially important dyes. Dye solutions, containing 50-200 mg dye/l, were used for the treatment with bitter gourd peroxidase (specific activity of 99.0 EU/mg protein). M. charantia peroxidases were able to decolorize most of the textile dyes by forming insoluble precipitate. When the textile dyes were treated with increasing concentration of enzyme, it was observed that greater fraction of the color was removed but four out of eight reactive dyes were recalcitrant to decolorization by bitter gourd peroxidase. Step-wise addition of enzyme to the decolorizing reaction mixture at the interval of 1h further enhanced the dye decolorization. The rate of decolorization was enhanced when the dyes were incubated with fixed quantity of enzyme for increasing times. Decolorization of non-textile dyes resulted in the degradation and removal of dyes from the solution without any precipitate formation. Decolorization rate was drastically increased when the textile and other industrially important non-textile dyes were treated with bitter gourd peroxidase in presence of 1.0 mM 1-hydroxybenzotriazole. Complex mixtures of dyes were prepared by taking three to four reactive textile and non-textile dyes in equal proportions. Each mixture was decolorized by more than 80% when treated with the enzyme in presence of 1.0 mM 1-hydroxybenzotriazole. Our data suggest that the peroxidase/mediator system is an effective biocatalyst for the treatment of effluents containing recalcitrant dyes from textile, dye manufacturing, dyeing and printing industries.     

Differential decolorization of textile dyes in mixtures and the joint effect of laccase and cellobiose dehydrogenase activities present in extracellular extracts from Funalia trogii

The largest part of the bio-decolorization investigations have been performed to date on a single dye without exploring the behavior in complex mixtures as the real dyeing baths. Therefore, mixtures of dyes belonging to azo and anthraquinonic classes, chosen among the most utilized in textile wool dyeing, were employed for comparative enzymatic decolorization studies using the extracellular extracts from the white rot fungus Funalia trogii, to understand how the concomitant presence of more than one dye could influence their degradation course and yield.Fungal extracts containing laccase activity only were capable to partially decolorize dyes mixtures from the different classes analyzed. The deconvolution of the decolorization with time allowed to monitor the degradation of the single dyes in the mixtures evidencing a time dependent differential decolorization not observed for the singles alone. Some dyes in the blend were in fact decolorized only when the most easily converted dyes were largely transformed. These experiments would allow to help the dyeing factories in the selection of the most readily degraded dyes.Since F. trogii grown on different media and activators shows diverse levels of expression of the redox enzymes laccase and cellobiose dehydrogenase (CDH), the dyes mixtures recalcitrant to decolorization by laccase activity alone, were subjected to the combined action of extracts containing laccase and CDH. The use of CDH, in support to the activity of laccase, resulted in substantial decolorization increases (>84%) for all the refractory dyes mixtures.     

Immobilization of laccase onto spacer-arm attached non-porous poly(GMA/EGDMA) beads: application for textile dye degradation

Non-porous poly(glycidyl methacrylate/ethyleneglycol dimetacrylate) (poly(GMA/EGDMA)) beads were prepared by suspension polymerization. The enzyme (i.e. laccase) was covalently immobilized onto plain and spacer-arm attached poly(GMA/EGDMA) beads. The amount of immobilized enzyme on the plain and spacer-arm attached beads was determined as 5.6 and 4.9 mg/g, respectively. The maximum activity (V(max)) and Michaelis constant (K(m)) of laccase immobilized on the spacer-arm attached beads, were found to be 77.6 U/min and 0.47 mM, respectively. Finally, the immobilized laccase was operated in a batch system, and textile dye Reactive Red 120 was successfully decolorized in the enzyme reactor.     

一色齿毛菌漆酶的酶学特性及染料脱色研究

染料由于具有复杂的化学结构通常难以降解。本文从白腐菌一色齿毛菌LS0547中纯化出胞外漆酶并用于染料脱色实验。SDS-PAGE结果显示纯化的漆酶分子量大小为63.7kDa。漆酶氧化底物ABTS的最适pH为2.2,最适温度为50℃。叠氮钠可强烈抑制漆酶活性,半胱氨酸和二硫苏糖醇可部分抑制漆酶活性。漆酶氧化ABTS,丁香醛连氮和2,6-二甲氧基苯酚的米氏常数分别为0.217,0.306和0.199mmol/L。粗酶和纯化的漆酶用于不同化学结构的染料的脱色研究,结果表明一色齿毛菌纯化漆酶可快速对RB亮蓝进行脱色,偶氮胭脂红和结晶紫的脱色效果低于RB亮蓝,测试的三种染料均可在没有介体存在的条件下被漆酶脱色,显示出一色齿毛菌漆酶在染料废水处理中的应用前景。     

Laccase-mediated Remazol Brilliant Blue R decolorization in a fixed-bed bioreactor

A crude laccase mixture preparation from Pleurotus ostreatus cultures supplemented with copper and ferulic acid was used to decolorize the anthraquinonic dye Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR). Performance of this enzymatic system was tested, and a maximum of 70% decolorization was achievable under optimal conditions. The crude preparation was immobilized by entrapment in copper alginate beads attaining 65% yield of laccase activity. Stability of the immobilized laccases was remarkably increased in comparison with that of the free enzyme preparation. Efficiency of the immobilized system was evaluated during stepwise dye additions in batch operations. Under the best conditions, 70% RBBR decolorization was achieved even after 20 cycles, although decolorization time exponentially increased after the 10th cycle. Different fixed-bed bioreactors were prepared and analyzed in continuous decolorization processes. The best performance was obtained by decreasing the amount of enzyme loaded and by improving laccase retention using chitosan-coated alginate beads.     

Redox-mediated decolorization of recalcitrant textile dyes by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma harzianum</Emphasis> WL1 laccase

The efficiency of crude and partially purified Trichoderma harzianum WL1 laccase for the decolorization of synthetic dyes (Rhodamine 6G, Erioglaucine and Trypan blue) with complex aromatic structures were evaluated. Selection of dyes was based on their extensive usage in local dyeing and textile industries around the study area. Studies on the role of redox potential of laccases on dye decolorization are rarely discussed and hence, for the first time we have shown the redox mediated dye decolorizing efficiency of T. harzianum WL1 laccase with the commonly employed redox mediator 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT). The process parameters such as initial dye concentration, enzyme load and HBT concentration were studied and found that they had a great influence on dye removal process. When the dyes were treated with increased concentration of enzyme, it showed a greater percentage of decolorization. Compared to the crude laccase, partially purified laccase accounts for maximum decolorization of all the dyes studied. In addition, the rate of dye decolorization was considerably enhanced in presence of 4 mM HBT. Maximum and minimum decolorization were recorded for Rhodamine 6G and Trypan blue, respectively. The results of this study further confirmed that, T. harzianum laccase was found to be suitable with HBT and this laccase-mediator system (LMS) could be applied for the decolorization of various classes of dyes.     

一株产漆酶细菌的分离鉴定及酶学性质研究

[目的]分离获得产漆酶的细菌菌株,研究漆酶的酶学性质并应用于染料脱色.[方法]利用含铜的富集培养基筛选产漆酶细菌;通过形态特征、生理生化试验及16SrDNA序列分析等方法进行鉴定;以丁香醛连氮为底物测定漆酶的酶学性质;通过测定染料在最大吸收波长下吸光值的变化评价漆酶对染料的脱色效果.[结果]从森林土壤中筛选到一株漆酶高产菌株LS05,初步鉴定为解淀粉芽孢杆菌(Bacillus amyloliquefaciens);菌株LS05的芽孢漆酶以丁香醛连氮为底物的最适pH为6.6,最适温度为70℃;该酶具有较好的稳定性,经70℃处理10h或在pH 9.0条件下放置10d后可保留活性.对抑制剂SDS和EDTA具有一定的抗性,在碱性条件下可有效脱色不同的工业染料,RB亮蓝、活性黑和靛红1h内的脱色率达93％以上.[结论]Bacillus amyloliquefaciens LS05的芽孢漆酶在高温和碱性条件下稳定性强,相对于真菌漆酶具有更好的工业应用特性,可有效用于工业染料废水的处理.     

Study of dye decolorization in an immobilized laccase enzyme-reactor using online spectroscopy

Decolorization of textile dyes by a laccase from Trametes modesta immobilized on gamma-aluminum oxide pellets was studied. An enzyme reactor was equipped with various UV/Vis spectroscopic sensors allowing the continuous online monitoring of the decolorization reactions. Decolorization of the dye solutions was followed via an immersion transmission probe. Adsorption processes were observed using diffuse reflectance measurements of the solid carrier material. Generally, immobilization of the laccase does not seem to sterically affect dye decolorization. A range of commercial textile dyes was screened for decolorization and it was found that the application of this enzymatic remediation system is not limited to a certain structural group of dyes. Anthrachinonic dyes (Lanaset Blue 2R, Terasil Pink 2GLA), some azo dyes, Indigo Carmine, and the triphenylmethane dye Crystal Violet were efficiently decolorized. However, the laccase displayed pronounced substrate specificities when a range of structurally related model azodyes was subjected to the biotransformation. Azodyes containing hydroxy groups in ortho or para position relative to the azo bond were preferentially oxidized. The reactor performance was studied more closely using Indigo Carmine.     

Stainless steel sponge: a novel carrier for the immobilisation of the white-rot fungus Trametes hirsuta for decolourization of textile dyes

Alginate beads, polyurethane foam, nylon sponge and stainless steel sponge were tested as carrier materials for the white-rot fungus Trametes hirsuta for laccase production under submerged fermentation conditions. Stainless steel sponge was the best carrier material leading to the highest laccase activities of up to 800 U/l after 8 days of cultivation. These values are higher than those reported to date operating with inert supports and without inducer addition. In a 1-l bioreactor containing T. hirsuta immobilised on stainless steel sponge laccase activities of about 2200 U/l were obtained when the culture medium was supplemented with 1 mM copper sulphate. There were no operational problems with this system during culturing time. The textile dye Indigo Carmine was almost totally degraded in 3 days by T. hirsuta grown in this bioreactor, while Lanaset Marine was degraded in two successive batches, reaching in the first batch a decolourization percentage of about 82% in 15 h and in the second one by 71% in 28 h. Results obtained after inhibition of growth of T. hirsuta by antibiotics indicated that dye decolourization could not exclusively be attributed to laccase activity.     

Decolorization of simulated textile dye baths by crude laccases from Trametes hirsuta and Cerrena unicolor

In this study crude laccases from the white‐rot fungi Cerrena unicolor and Trametes hirsuta were tested for their ability to decolorize simulated textile dye baths. The dyes used were Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR) (100 mg/L), Congo Red (12.5 mg/L), Lanaset Grey (75 mg/L) and Poly R‐478 (50 mg/L). The effect of redox mediators on dye decolorization by laccases was also assessed. C. unicolor laccase was able to decolorize all the dyes tested. It was especially effective towards Congo Red and RBBR with 91 and 80% of color removal in 19.5 h despite the fact that simulated textile dye baths were used. Also Poly R‐478 and Lanaset Grey were partially decolorized (69 and 48%, respectively). C. unicolor laccase did not need any mediators for removing the dyes. However, T. hirsuta laccase was only able to decolorize simulated Congo Red and RBBR dye baths (91 and 45%, respectively) in 19.5 h without mediators. When using mediators the decolorization capability was enhanced substantially, e.g. Poly R‐478 was decolorized by 78% in 25.5 h. On the whole, both laccases showed potential to be used in industrial applications.     

Contribution of manganese peroxidase and laccase to dye decoloration by Trametes versicolor

During dye decoloration by Trametes versicolor ATCC 20869 in modified Kirk’s medium, manganese peroxidase (MnP) and laccase were produced, but not lignin peroxidase, cellobiose dehydrogenase or manganese-independent peroxidase. Purified MnP decolorized azo dyes [amaranth, reactive black 5 (RB5) and Cibacron brilliant yellow] in Mn²⁺-dependent reactions but did not decolorize an anthraquinone dye [Remazol brilliant blue R (RBBR)]. However, the purified laccase decolorized RBBR five to ten times faster than the azo dyes and the addition of a redox mediator, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), did not alter decoloration rates. Amaranth and RB5 were decolorized the most rapidly by MnP since they have a hydroxyl group in an ortho position and a sulfonate group in the meta position relative to the azo bond. During a typical batch decoloration with the fungal culture, the ratio of laccase:MnP was 10:1 to 20:1 (based on enzyme activity) and increased to greater than 30:1 after decoloration was complete. Since MnP decolorized amaranth about 30 times more rapidly than laccase per unit of enzyme activity, MnP should have contributed more to decoloration than laccase in batch cultures.     

Evaluation of azo dyes degradation potential of fungal strains and their role in wastewater treatment

In the present investigation, two fungal strains were exploited to evaluate their degradation capability on Synozol Red, Yellow, and Navy-Blue dyes which gave the utmost decolorization such as 40%, 70%, 90% by Aspergillus niger, and 36%, 73%, 87% by Trichoderma viride, respectively for 60 days. The Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of the decolorized dyes suggested that various compounds such as Caprolactam, Furazan-3-carboxamide, oxime, 4-amino-N, N-dimethyl, 6H-Pyrazolo[1,2-a] [1,2,4,5]tetrazine, Hexahydro-2,3-dimethyl, Benzene, 1-propenyl, Dihydroxymaleic acid, Arsenous acid, tris(trimethylsilyl) ester were produced by the fungi which helped in the removal of dyes from the wastewater. The laccase activity of the degraded dyes was proof that both of the strains positively produced the enzyme that helped in the biodegradation of carcinogenic dyes into less harmful products. The A. niger extracted laccase relative activity was 262%, 265%, and 145.7% for Synozol Yellow, Synozol Red, and Navy Blue, respectively. Similarly, laccase, obtained from T. viride, showed relative activity of 187.5% against Synozol Yellow, 215% against Synozol Red, and 202% against Navy Blue. Furthermore, the supernatant extracted from fungi-decolorized wastewater was used to check phytotoxicity on Vigna radiata, which gave excellent results. Both fungal strains, on the basis of their dye degradation potential, can be used to ameliorate wastewater contaminated with azo dyes.