PEG修饰牛血红蛋白的计算机模拟研究

对αβ二聚牛血红蛋白晶体结构的分析和氨基酸钱基溶剂可及表面积的计算表明,牛血红蛋白表面Ｌｙｓ上的氨基适合进行聚乙二醇（ＰＥＧ）修饰,对其修饰不会影响携氧能力,在此基础上设计了连接物连接ＰＥＧ和牛血红蛋白。分子模拟研究结果显示ＰＥＧ修饰牛血红蛋白产物是无免疫原性的。     

新型蛋白质修饰剂的合成及修饰牛血红蛋白的初步研究

以L-谷氨酸和己二酸为原料合成了一种新型的四官能团蛋白质修饰剂,并用核磁共振和红外光谱对其结构进行了表征。然后以其为修饰剂,对牛血红蛋白的化学修饰进行了初步的研究,并通过高效液相色谱、聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳和血氧分析仪对交联牛血红蛋白的分子量和携氧性能进行了表征。结果表明,该修饰剂可以使牛血红蛋白同时在分子内和分子间发生化学交联,并较好地保持携氧能力（P50:21.7mmHg,Hill系数:2.01）,因此在众多用于开发人工血液代用品的化学修饰剂中该修饰剂具有良好的应用前景。     

修饰血红蛋白作为红细胞代用品的研究进展和挑战

血源紧缺和病毒污染问题推动了血液代用品的研究,以血红蛋白为代表的红细胞代用品成为研究的重点。为克服血红蛋白直接使用的毒副作用,各种修饰技术得到了迅速发展,其中包括双阿司匹林交联、戊二醛交联、棉子糖交联、聚乙二醇偶联、脂质体包埋、生物可降解高分子包埋等。其中一些技术已经形成规模化制备工艺,产品进入临床试验,有的已在个别国家上市。鉴于这项研究意义重大,我国有关研究已经起步并正在迅速发展,各国同行的研究有重要的参考价值,因此有必要对近年来血红蛋白作为红细胞的代用品研究状况进行分析,明确面临的挑战,这将有利于发展更全面和有效的研究方案,以期取得突破性进展。     

聚乙二醇大分子化猪血红蛋白对其携氧特性的影响

用PEG共轭结合猪血红蛋白(pHb)以增大总分子量是延长它在血液循环系统中存留时间的有效方法。作为一种线性的亲水大分子,PEG对pHb的共轭会对它的携氧特性产生显著影响。研究了pHb处于不同空间构象(脱氧的T构象或氧合的R构象)、PEG修饰程度的高低、修饰用PEG的分子量的大小、有无别构效应调节剂等不同条件下PEG修饰对pHb携氧能力的影响。进而又用了PEG修饰已经用双(3,5-二溴水杨酸)延胡索酸酯(DBBF)分子内交联的pHb,考察修饰对这种内交联pHb携氧功能的影响。还比较了4种不同方法活化的PEG衍生物,对pHb修饰效率、对修饰产物携氧功能的影响及修饰产物稳定性等。本文认为,DBBF分子内交联的pHb,在有别构效应调节剂的存在下,再用PEG修饰,可以获得携氧能力好、分子量适宜、四聚体稳定的修饰产物。     

人工血液前瞻性研究

本文以国内外前人对人工血液的研究为基础，通过概述人工血液研究的进展，和几代制品的发展情况，重点从人工血液的最新研究热点－脂质体微囊包埋技术和基因工程的前沿科研角度，围绕人造血红蛋白的稳定性，制备工艺，临床毒副作用进行了综述。     

改性血红蛋白携氧载体

天然血红蛋白(Hb)经改性处理后可改善稳定性和氧亲和性。近半个世纪的研制产生了3代改性血红蛋白制品：第1代为化学改性Hb,已趋成熟,有多种制品问世,现正进行Ⅱ～Ⅲ期临床试验;第2代为包含了红细胞酶类的化学交联Hb和利用分子遗传工程制备的重组Hb;第3代为微包囊Hb,其结构和功能更接近天然红细胞。Hb的来源除人红细胞外还包括牛Hb．利用重组DNA技术从大肠杆菌和酵母菌中提取的重组Hb及转基因Hb。     

辛二酸二琥珀酰亚胺酯交联血红蛋白制备红细胞代用品

探索了用辛二酸二琥珀酰亚胺酯(DSS)作为分子内交联剂交联血红蛋白的亚基, 以制备新型红细胞代用品. 采用多角度激光散射检测器(MALLS)与高效液相色谱(HPLC)连接进行检测, 辅之以变性聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳(SDS-PAGE)分析反应产物组成. 实验在局部百级的洁净室内进行, 低温4℃下反应1 h, 交联产物中83.8%为重均分子量(Mw)66.8 kD的分子内交联血红蛋白, 16.2%是Mw为146.6和306.4 kD的低聚血红蛋白. 通过流动相中添加1 mol/L MgCl₂的凝胶过滤色谱验证, 交联后的血红蛋白在生理环境下不会解聚. 联用反相高效液相色谱与质谱(RP-HPLC-MS)初步确定, 交联为非定点反应, 主要在a-a亚基间进行. 交联反应增强了血红蛋白亚基的疏水性, 影响了血红蛋白的载氧活性, P₅₀和Hill系数由交联前的21.8和2.22 mmHg分别降至14.3和1.41 mmHg, 仍具有一定的载氧能力. 等电聚焦(IEF)电泳表明, 制备的DSS交联血红蛋白的等电点降至4.6 ~ 5.2之间, 接近于不透过血管壁的血清白蛋白. 产品经小鼠异常毒性试验证实具有一定的生物安全性, 大鼠的换血试验表明DSS交联血红蛋白并未引起血压升高, 也未见其他明显的副作用. 还对DSS交联血红蛋白与文献已有的双阿司匹林交联血红蛋白的产物特性进行了比较.     

氧化棉子糖分子内交联猪血红蛋白对其结构功能的影响

用高碘酸盐氧化法制得氧化开环棉子糖,并用它分别修饰处在氧合及脱氧构象的猪血红蛋白得到两种不同的修饰衍生物。与天然蛋白质相比,两种修饰后的猪血红蛋白衍生物均具有明显的抗α２β２四聚体解聚的特性。经ＳＤＳ－ＰＡＧＥ和反相ＨＰＬＣ分析发现这两种修饰衍生物均为分子内交联产物,而且交联都发生于２个β亚基之间,两种交联产物的紫外－可见光谱没有明显差别,但在相同浓度下,脱氧构象下被修饰蛋白质的荧光发射光强度明显     

血液替代品研究新进展——重组血红蛋白

血液替工品是近年来世界性的研究热点之一，用重组组血红蛋白制造血液代品是一条新的途径。本综述了重组血红蛋白的表达载体，以制备血液替代品为目的的血红蛋白分子的改构方案、目前用重组血红蛋白制备的血液替代品的生物效应以及此项研究所面临的困难和展望。     

Octamers and nanoparticles as hemoglobin based blood substitutes

Progress in developing a blood substitute is aided by new biotechnologies and a better understanding of the circulatory system. For Hb based solutions, there is still a debate over the best set of fundamental parameters concerning the oxygen affinity which is correlated with the oxidation rate, the cooperativity, the transporter size, and of course the final source of material. Genetic engineering methods have helped discover novel globins, but not yet the quantity necessary for the high demand of blood transfusions. The expanding database of globin properties has indicated that certain individual parameters are coupled, such as the oxygen affinity and the oxidation rate, indicating that one must accept a compromise of the best parameters. After a general introduction of these basic criteria, we will focus on two strategies concerning the size of the oxygen transporter: Hb octamers, and Hb integrated within a nanoparticle.     

Chemical modification of hemoglobin improves biocatalytic oxidation of PAHs

Chemical modifications on human hemoglobin were performed with the aim to change both surface and active-site hydrophobicities. The modifications included covalent coupling of poly(ethylene)glycol (5000 MW) on free amino groups and the methyl esterification of free carboxylic groups. The modified hemoglobin was assayed for the oxidation of 11 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 2 organosulfur aromatic compounds. Acenaphthene, anthracene, azulene, benzo(a)pyrene, fluoranthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and pyrene were transformed to their respective quinones, while for chrysene and biphenyl no biocatalytic reaction could be detected. Dibenzothiophene and thianthrene were oxidized to form sulfoxides. The doubly modified hemoglobin, PEG-Met-hemoglobin, showed up to 10 times higher activity than the unmodified protein. The kinetic constants show that the PEG-Met-hemoglobin has a significantly higher catalytic efficiency. The equilibrium substrate binding constants for unmodified and PEG-Met-modified hemoglobis and hemoglobin show that this catalytic enhancement could be attributed to the affinity increase for hydrophobic substrates in the modified protein.     

Preparation of unaltered hemoglobin from human placentas for possible use in blood substitutes

Hemoglobin extracted from human placentas could be used as the basis of blood substitutes provided it could be prepared on a large scale with appropriate oxygen-binding properties. Unfortunately, the industrial conditions under which it is extracted, produce hemoglobin with high oxygen affinity and which is no longer influenced by the classical effectors. These characteristics were shown to be caused by a degradation of the alpha-chain brought about by an arginine carboxypeptidase present in the placental tissues and leading to the disappearance of the C-terminal arginine residue. This carboxypeptidase which is released from the tissues during the process of crushing the frozen placentas, degrades the protein during the chromatographic purification procedure. The addition of an inhibitor of this carboxypeptidase (for example, arginine) as soon as the placentas are thawed and during the chromatographic process, makes it possible to obtain placental hemoglobin with oxygen-binding properties quite similar to those of HbA prepared from peripheral venous blood.     

Biochemical aspects of the reaction of hemoglobin and NO: implications for Hb-based blood substitutes

The role of Hemoglobin (Hb) on nitric oxide (NO) biology has received much attention. Until recently, the reaction between erythrocytic Hb and NO was generally considered in the context of mechanisms that safely detoxify NO. However, recent insights suggest that properties associated with the red blood cell limit NO-Hb interactions under physiological conditions, and provide some resolution to the question of how NO functions in the presence of blood. Furthermore, Hb-dependent mechanisms that preserve, not destroy NO bioactivity in vivo have also been proposed. The emerging picture suggests that the interplay between NO and erythrocytic Hb is important in regulating the functions of both these molecules in vivo. However, Hb-dependent scavenging and loss of NO function is significant when this heme protein is present outside the red blood cell. This can occur during hemolysis or administration of Hb-based blood substitutes. Scavenging of NO is a significant problem that limits the use of Hb-based blood substitutes in the clinic, and development of Hb molecules that do not efficiently react with NO remains an important area of investigation. In this article, the reactions between NO and erythrocytic Hb or cell-free Hb are described and the effects on NO and Hb function in vivo and development of blood substitutes discussed.     

Alternative diaspirins for modification of hemoglobin and sickle hemoglobin

Studies of modification of hemoglobin and of sickle hemoglobin by alternative aspirins have been extended to a series of new bis esters with a variety of substituted bridging diacids and to a group of mono esters with polar acyl groups. Rates of hydrolysis of these alternative aspirins have also been examined, and they reveal that a careful balance between stability and reactivity is essential for optimal activity. Four-carbon bridging groups have been found to be particularly effective, two of these raising the minimum gelling concentration of sickle hemoglobin by as much as 100%.     

Tyrosine residues as redox cofactors in human hemoglobin: implications for engineering nontoxic blood substitutes

Respiratory proteins such as myoglobin and hemoglobin can, under oxidative conditions, form ferryl heme iron and protein-based free radicals. Ferryl myoglobin can safely be returned to the ferric oxidation state by electron donation from exogenous reductants via a mechanism that involves two distinct pathways. In addition to direct transfer between the electron donor and ferryl heme edge, there is a second pathway that involves "through-protein" electron transfer via a tyrosine residue (tyrosine 103, sperm whale myoglobin). Here we show that the heterogeneous subunits of human hemoglobin, the alpha and beta chains, display significantly different kinetics for ferryl reduction by exogenous reductants. By using selected hemoglobin mutants, we show that the alpha chain possesses two electron transfer pathways, similar to myoglobin. Furthermore, tyrosine 42 is shown to be a critical component of the high affinity, through-protein electron transfer pathway. We also show that the beta chain of hemoglobin, lacking the homologous tyrosine, does not possess this through-protein electron transfer pathway. However, such a pathway can be engineered into the protein by mutation of a specific phenylalanine residue to a tyrosine. High affinity through-protein electron transfer pathways, whether native or engineered, enhance the kinetics of ferryl removal by reductants, particularly at low reductant concentrations. Ferryl iron has been suggested to be a major cause of the oxidative toxicity of hemoglobin-based blood substitutes. Engineering hemoglobin with enhanced rates of ferryl removal, as we show here, is therefore likely to result in molecules better suited for in vivo oxygen delivery.     

Towards hemerythrin-based blood substitutes: Comparative performance to hemoglobin on human leukocytes and umbilical vein endothelial cells

Hemerythrin is a dioxygen-carrying protein whose oxidative/nitrosative stress-related reactivity is lower than that of hemoglobin, which may warrant investigation of hemerythrin as raw material for artificial oxygen carriers (‘blood substitutes’). We report here the first biological tests for hemerythrin and its chemical derivatives, comparing their performance with that of a representative competitor, glutaraldehyde-polymerized bovine hemoglobin. Hemerythrin (native or derivatized) exhibits a proliferative effect on human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) cultures, as opposed to a slight inhibitory effect of hemoglobin. A similar positive effect is displayed on human lymphocytes by glutaraldehyde-polymerized hemerythrin, but not by native or polyethylene glycol-derivatized hemerythrin.