Behaviour and the concept of “Heritability” axioms of an ethological refutation

This paper discusses the widespread use of heritability calculations in recent behaviour research including behaviour genetics. In the sequel, a radical criticism concerning the basic axioms of the underlying, more general concept itself is presented. The starting point for testing the proclaimed universal validity of this concept stems from a fictitious yet realistic example taken from learning research. The theoretical result, based on the application of the conventional reasoning in this field, states that developmental processes — and learning is only one specific case out of an immense number of similar behavioural mechanisms — can neither be adequately described nor causally explained with sufficient reliability within the context of the heredity paradigm. On the contrary, an inherent inconsistency of the concept itself when applied to behaviour processes is demonstrated. Finally, a conceptual alternative involving a systems-theoretical approach to the problem is presented: In such a perspective it is the concept of cognition which represents the adequate explanatory theorem - a theorem in which quantitative processing of information from the environment is clearly revealed to belong to a subordinate level of living organization.     

The Theory of Set in the Light of Reflex Theory

It is well known to all those acquainted with D. N. Uznadze's theory of set [ustanovka] (1) that this theory was meant to answer the question of "the character and inner structure of human activity" [11; 79]. But, as A. T. Bochorishvili correctly noted, we do not yet have "clarity in basic concepts. … Soviet psychology cannot yet go so far as to speak of the content of the basic concept of the psychology of set, of the content of set itself" [5: 15]. As a panacea for overcoming these differences of opinion, Bochorishvili proposes that we "widely and actively develop investigations of the theoretical bases of the psychology of set as D. N. Uznadze understood if" (ibid.).     

Homage to the red queen. II. Coevolutionary response to enrichment of exploitation ecosystems

The model of predator-victim coevolution developed in the preceding paper (Schaffer and Rosenzweig, 1978) is used to analyze the coevolutionary response to ecosystem enrichment. It is shown that coevolution tends to oppose the destabilization that results from the enrichment itself. In the circumstance that the victims' r and K are proportional, gradual enrichment followed by coevolutionary adjustment actually enhances ecosystem stability.     

On Novelty,Heterochrony and Developmental Constraints in a Complex Morphological Theory of Recapitulation: The Genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trophon</Emphasis> as a Case Study

Darwin proposed natural selection as the main evolutionary mechanism in 1859. However, he did not think that this was the only process by which new species were generated. It was the so-called Modern Synthesis who established natural selection as the only mechanism responsible for evolution. Since then, the evolutionary process is explained by the pair mutation-adaptation: new species are generated by the appearance of new mutations, which in case of allowing new adaptations to the environment, they will be fixed and organisms will survive, therefore resulting in new species. An alternative view to the plasticity promoted by the adaptationist program is to think organisms as truly organized structures, having different levels of structural organization, which would mean that not every form is possible, but only those that correspond to a certain building plan. This would be reflected in the appearance of structural constraints, showing the limits imposed to the organism during its evolutionary development. In this work, I studied the ontogeny and development of three species of the genus Trophon by geometric morphometrics, in order to clarify important concepts in evolutionary developmental biology (Evo-Devo). Integrating theoretical and empirical investigations, I could propose a new conceptual framework for heterochrony in a context of a complex theory of recapitulation. Furthermore, I could detect a developmental constraint in Trophon, which provided an opportunity to reconstruct the concept of constraint and propose a synthesis between heterochrony and constraint that explained evolution as a process fueled by them, that is, as directive and driving force.     

A general theory of chromosome pairing based on the palindromic DNA model of Sobell with modifications and amplifications

A model for chromosome pairing is presented. It is based on the presence of segments of symmetric sequences of bases (palindromes) in the DNA at specific places in the chromosome. Palindromic DNA has been characterized by Wilson &; Thomas (1974), who state that these sequences are a regular feature of eukaryotic DNA. Sobell (1972) has suggested that they may be involved in synapsis and genetic recombination. Sobell's model is modified and amplified in an attempt to develop a general theory of chromosome pairing that explains congressional pairing, synapsis, non-homologous pairing, the initiation of crossing over, and interference.     

Membrane permeability and receptor function.

This paper presents a model of receptor function for receptors that mediate selective increases in ionic permeabilities (e.g. receptors that are sensitive to acetylcholine and gamma-aminobutyric acid). The model distinguishes itself from previous models by the qualitative and quantitative application of current biophysical approaches to ion permeation. Explicit consideration of receptor-controlled permeation sites and membrane permeability results in a specific and testable theory into which complex receptor phenomena can easily be incorporated.Examination of agonist concentration-conductance data from a well-studied GABAnergic receptor allows invalidation of a standard assumption for determining kinetic constants of agonist-receptor interactions. Specifically, calculations are presented which indicate that the size of an individual receptor (elementary) conductance event can vary with agonist concentration. The following section develops the expressions relating agonist concentration to total membrane conductance for possible receptor models which incorporate variations in the amplitude of elementary conductance events.In the case of desensitization, the “inactivated” receptor is suggested to result from occupation and inactivation, not at the agonist-binding (activation) site of the receptor, but at the ionophore. The ionophore occupation model provides a parsimonious explanation of different types of desensitization. In addition, incorporation of this model into the cyclic reaction model of Katz &; Thesleff (1957) provides increased specification for the cyclic model and results in new experimental predictions.     

Bacterial Competition in Activated Sludge: Theoretical Analysis of Varying Solids Retention Times on Diversity

A mechanistic model for activated sludge sewage treatment was developed to predict exploitative competition of six aerobic heterotrophic bacterial species competing for three essential resources. The central hypothesis of the model is that in a multispecies/limiting resource system the number of coexisting bacterial species, N, exceeds the number of limiting resources, K, available for them. The explanation for this is that for certain species combinations, the dynamics of the competition process generate oscillations in the abundances of species, and these oscillations allow the coexistence of greater number of species than the number of limiting resources (N > K). This result is a direct contradiction of an existing activated sludge steady state competition theory, the principle of competitive exclusion, which states that the competition process proceeds to equilibrium, allowing only N K species to coexist. The model was used to investigate the effect of varying solids retention times on the diversity of species using the conventional, completely mixed activated sludge configuration. The results of model simulations showed that for a certain range of solids retention times (2.28–5.66 days) the competition of six species for three essential resources produces oscillations within the structure of the bacterial community allowing for the sustained growth of more than three species on three resources.This revised version was published online in November 2004 with corrections to Volume 48.     

Organizational readiness for knowledge translation in chronic care: a review of theoretical components

Background

With the persistent gaps between research and practice in healthcare systems, knowledge translation (KT) has gained significance and importance. Also, in most industrialized countries, there is an increasing emphasis on managing chronic health conditions with the best available evidence. Yet, organizations aiming to improve chronic care (CC) require an adequate level of organizational readiness (OR) for KT.Objectives: The purpose of this study is to review and synthesize the existing evidence on conceptual models/frameworks of Organizational Readiness for Change (ORC) in healthcare as the basis for the development of a comprehensive framework of OR for KT in the context of CC.

Data sources

We conducted a systematic review of the literature on OR for KT in CC using Pubmed, Embase, CINAHL, PsychINFO, Web of Sciences (SCI and SSCI), and others. Search terms included readiness; commitment and change; preparedness; willing to change; organization and administration; and health and social services.Study selection: The search was limited to studies that had been published between the starting date of each bibliographic database (e.g., 1964 for PubMed) and November 1, 2012. Only papers that refer to a theory, a theoretical component from any framework or model on OR that were applicable to the healthcare domain were considered. We analyzed data using conceptual mapping.Data extraction: Pairs of authors independently screened the published literature by reviewing their titles and abstracts. Then, the two same reviewers appraised the full text of each study independently.

Results

Overall, we found and synthesized 10 theories, theoretical models and conceptual frameworks relevant to ORC in healthcare described in 38 publications. We identified five core concepts, namely organizational dynamics, change process, innovation readiness, institutional readiness, and personal readiness. We extracted 17 dimensions and 59 sub-dimensions related to these 5 concepts.

Conclusion

Our findings provide a useful overview for researchers interested in ORC and aims to create a consensus on the core theoretical components of ORC in general and of OR for KT in CC in particular. However, more work is needed to define and validate the core elements of a framework that could help to assess OR for KT in CC.

     

Red destinies: The landscape of environmental risk in Madagascar

Ecological events which recur with a period of 5–30 years are perceived as discontinuities and culturally interpreted. A cultural model of environmental expectation and intervention is inferred from Malagasy games, dwellings, and forecasts. In a series of examples from Malagasy communities, we shall first identify a set of underlying principles. We shall refer briefly to the nearest corresponding concepts in western scientific thought, known as catastrophe theory, and show the relevance of the concepts to four practical problems of environmental management.     

On the distribution of allele frequencies in a diffusion model

An expression is derived and values tabulated for the expected allele frequencies and their variances, arranged in decreasing order in a population, from the finite and infinite alleles diffusion model in Watterson (1976). The neutral model and also a model with heterozygote selection are considered. Some observed ABO blood group allele frequencies are compared with the tabulated expected frequencies in the neutral three allele model. This extends the results of Watterson and Guess (1977) who tabulate the expected value of the most common allele. One test of neutrality previously advocated is to consider the distribution of F, the population homozygosity, conditional on G, the product of allele frequencies. However it is shown here that for a large number of alleles, F and G are asymptotically independent, the test would not be a good one in this case. A limit theorem is derived for the distribution of allele frequencies in the neutral model when the mutation rate is large. In this case F is shown to be asymptotically normal. An inequality is derived for the probability that the oldest allele in a population is amongst the r most frequent types. An inequality is also found for the probability that a sample will only contain representatives of the r most frequent allele types in the population.     

Typology now: homology and developmental constraints explain evolvability

By linking the concepts of homology and morphological organization to evolvability, this paper attempts to (1) bridge the gap between developmental and phylogenetic approaches to homology and to (2) show that developmental constraints and natural selection are compatible and in fact complementary. I conceive of a homologue as a unit of morphological evolvability, i.e., as a part of an organism that can exhibit heritable phenotypic variation independently of the organism’s other homologues. An account of homology therefore consists in explaining how an organism’s developmental constitution results in different homologues/characters as units that can evolve independently of each other. The explanans of an account of homology is developmental, yet the very explanandum is an evolutionary phenomenon: evolvability in a character-by-character fashion, which manifests itself in phylogenetic patterns as recognized by phylogenetic approaches to homology. While developmental constraints and selection have often been viewed as antagonistic forces, I argue that both are complementary as they concern different parts of the evolutionary process. Developmental constraints, conceived of as the presence of the same set of homologues across phenotypic change, pertain to how heritable variation can be generated in the first place (evolvability), while natural selection operates subsequently on the produced variation.

Instinct in the '50s: the British reception of Konrad Lorenz's theory of instinctive behavior<Superscript>*</Superscript>

At the beginning of the 1950s most students of animal behavior in Britain saw the instinct concept developed by Konrad Lorenz in the 1930s as the central theoretical construct of the new ethology. In the mid 1950s J.B.S. Haldane made substantial efforts to undermine Lorenz's status as the founder of the new discipline, challenging his priority on key ethological concepts. Haldane was also critical of Lorenz's sharp distinction between instinctive and learnt behavior. This was inconsistent with Haldane's account of the evolution of language, and, according to Haldane, inconsistent with elementary genetics. British attitudes to the instinct concept changed dramatically in the wake of Daniel S. Lehraman's 1953 critique of Lorenz, and by the 1960s Lorenz drew a clear distinction between his own views and those of the English-speaking ethologists. The inconsistencies between Lorenz's ideas and the trends in contemporary evolutionary genetics that are reflected in Haldane's critiques may help to explain why the Lorenzian instinct concept was unable to maintain itself in Britian.     

On a new law of bone remodeling based on damage elasticity: a thermodynamic approach

Background

Bone tissue is the main element of the human skeleton and is a dynamic tissue that is continuously renewed by bone-resorbing osteoclasts and bone-forming osteoblasts.The bone is also capable of repairing itself and adapting its structure to changes in its load environment through the process of bone remodeling.Therefore, this phenomenon has been gaining increasing interest in the last years and many laws have been developed in order to simulate this process.

Results

In this paper, we develop a new law of bone remodeling in the context of damaged elastic by applying the thermodynamic approach in the case of small perturbations.The model is solved numerically by a finite difference method in the one-dimensional bone structure of a n-unit elements model.

Conclusion

In addition, several numerical simulations are presented that confirm the accuracy and effectiveness of the model.

     

Methodological problems in evolutionary biology

One of the major criticisms of optimal foraging theory (OFT) is that it is not testable. In discussions of this criticism opposing parties have confused methodological concepts and used meaningless biological concepts. In this paper we discuss such misunderstandings and show that OFr has an empirically testable, and even well-confirmed, general core theory. One of our main conclusions is that specific model testing should not be aimed at proving optimality, but rather at identifying the context in which certain types of behaviour are optimal. To do this, it is necessary to be aware of the assumptions made in testing a model. The assumptions that are explicitly stated in the literature up to now do not completely cover the actual assumptions made in testing OFT models in practice. We present a more comprehensive set of assumptions. Although all the assumptions play a role in testing models, they are not of equal status. Crucial assumptions concern constraints and the relation between fitness and currency. Therefore, it is essential to make such assumptions testable in practice. We show that a more explicit relationship between OFT modelling and evolutionary theory can help with this. Specifically, phylogeny reconstruction and population dynamic modelling can and should be used to formulate assumptions concerning constraints and currencies.     

Inactivation of dioldehydrase in the presence of a coenzyme-B12 analog

We have previously shown that a coenzyme-B₁₂ analog, adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl)-(e-OH), with the e-propionamide group converted to a carboxylic acid, serves as a poor coenzyme for dioldehydrase. During the course of the catalytic process, the enzyme AdoCbl-(e-OH) complex becomes catalytically inactive (T. Toraya, E. Krodel, A. S. Mildvan, and R. H. Abeles, 1979, Biochemistry18, 417–426). We have now examined the mechanism of this inactivation further. Inactivation only occurs in the presence of substrate. The dioldehydrase coenzyme analog complex is stable in the absence of substrate. In the inactivated complex, the coenzyme analog was stoichiometrically converted to a cob(II)alamin species. The cob-(II)alamin formed remained irreversibly bound at the active site of the enzyme and resisted oxidation by O₂ even in the presence of CN^?. Stoichiometric formation of 5′-deoxyadenosine from the 5′-deoxy-5′-adenosyl moiety of the coenzyme analog was demonstrated with [8-¹⁴C]-AdoCbl(e-OH). This nucleoside also remained tightly bound to the enzyme and was not exchangeable with free 5′-deoxyadenosine nor was it removed by Sephadex chromatography. The rate of inactivation showed no deuterium isotope effect when the inactivation occurred in the presence of l,2-propanediol-l-d₂. The inactivated complex was resolved by acid ammonium sulfate treatment into the intact apoenzyme and the hydroxocobalamin derivative. This indicates that the apoenzyme itself is not modified in the inactivation process. These results suggest that the inactivation reaction occurs from one of the intermediates in the normal catalysis. We propose that the inactivation is due to incorrect binding of the modified coenzyme in an intermediate of the catalytic process. This incorrect binding leads to the loss of the substrate radical, and consequently, to loss of catalytic activity.     

Optimierung und ökonomisierung im kontext von evolutionstheorie und phylogenetischer rekonstruktion

The meaning of optimality and economy in phylogenetics and evolutionary biology is discussed. It can be shown that the prevailing concepts of optimality and economy are equivocal as they are not based on strict theoretical positions and as they have a variable meaning in different theoretical contexts. The ideas of optimality and economy can be considered to be identical with the expectation of a relatively simple order in a particular field of study. Although there exists no way of inferring one or several methods of solving scientific problems from the presupposed idea of economy and optimality, a lack of motivation for scientific investigations would result if the concepts of economy and optimality in nature were dropped. By reference to several examples, it is shown that the concepts of optimality and economy are only useful against the background of indispensable theories. If there is a shift from one theory to another, a restriction on the use of these concepts is necessary. Optimality and economy in the sense of operations research in engineering or economical sciences depend on the principle of minimum costs. Both theoretical concepts: technical efficiency in relation to the energy required to run a machine and profit maximation in an economical framework must be shown to be realistic assumptions. In the field of biology processes of optimization and economization are normally discussed under two different views:

1. The concept of economy is used in cases of functional adaptation when the organism makes good use of the building material which is available to fulfill one (or more) functions. The theoretical background must be seen in the energy-consuming aspect of the organism.
2. In evolutionary change and phylogeny ‘economization’ and ‘optimization’ are deduced from the evolutionary theory, and evolution is shown to produce a special kind of biological economy in biological systems (Bock & von Wahlert, 1965). The ‘Okonomie-Prinzip’ or ‘Lesrichtungskriterium’ points out the arguments needed to state a phylogenetic theory and to construct a dendrogram (Peters & Gutmann, 1971).

In every phylogenetic theory concerning the adaptational change in the evolving biological system an explanation for the function of all stages is required. Only those statements should be accepted as phylogenetic theories which are characterized by the demonstration of the process of economization in the functional relations of the evolving organism. The process of adaptation can be determined by the improved chance of some mutants to propagate their genetical information. In this process all functional systems in their interrelations — i.a. mutual dependence — and their relation with the environment add their functional efficiency to the information to be delivered to their progeny, because the more economical biological system in a certain environment will have a better chance to produce offspring. This outcome is affirmed by natural selection which works on all levels of the evolving biological systems (Gutmann & Peters 1973). Nevertheless a judgment about adaptation cannot be taken as a scale of measurement in the phylogenetic process. The conditions in the organism itself and in the environment or in the organic system alone can change in so profound a manner that the marginal conditions of the earlier stages of the process of adaptation are not the same as in the derived ones. During phylogenetic change of the evolving organism the selective strains are also continuously changing. As a consequence no state or invariant concept of economy can cover the different stages of the phylogenetic process. The pragmatical meaning of the theoretical consideration is substantiated by the example of the hydrostatic skeleton theory in which the chordates are derived from metameric worms with a fluid skeleton. Herrn Professor Dr. P. Dullemeijer sind die Verfasser für kritische Lektüre und wertovolle Hinweise zu Dank verpflichtet.     

Experimental retracement of the origins of a protocell

Although Oparin used coacervate droplets from two or more types of polymer to model the first cell, he hypothesized homacervation from protein, consistent with Pasteur and Darwin. Herrera made two amino acids and numerous cell-like structures (sulfobes) in the laboratory, which probably arose from intermediate polymers. Our experiments have conformed with a homoacervation of thermal proteinoid, in which amino acid sequences are determined by the reacting amino acids themselves. All proteinoids that have been tested assemble themselves alone in water to protocells. The protocells have characteristics of life defined by Webster's Dictionary: metabolism, growth, reproduction and response to stimuli in the environment. The protocells are able also to evolve to more modern cells including the initiation of a nucleic acid coding system.Principal spinoffs from the results are revised evolutionary theory, models for protoneurons and networks thereof, and numerous industrial applications of thermal polyamino acids. Life itself has thus been reaffirmed to be rooted in protein, not in DNA nor RNA, which are however crucial to inheritance in modern life as instruction manual (Kornberg).Recognition of the advances have been considerably delayed by the deeply held assumption that life began by chance from random polymerization of amino acids, in contrast to the experimental findings. The concepts of DNA/RNA-first and protein-first are reconciled by a rise-and-fall progression as often seen in biochemical and biological evolution.The fact that amino acids order themselves explains in turn that thermal copolyamino acids are finding numerous applications. The entire sequence of processes in the proteinoid origins theory is now seen to be highly deterministic, in close accord with Einstein.     

The transfer and implementation of an Aboriginal Australian wellbeing program: a grounded theory study

Background

The concepts and standard practices of implementation, largely originating in developed countries, cannot necessarily be simply transferred into diverse cultural contexts. There has been relative inattention in the implementation science literature paid to the implementation of interventions targeting minority Indigenous populations within developed countries. This suggests that the implementation literature may be bypassing population groups within developed countries who suffer some of the greatest disadvantage. Within the context of Aboriginal Australian health improvement, this study considers the impact of political and cultural issues by examining the transfer and implementation of the Family Wellbeing program across 56 places over a 20-year period.

Methods

A theoretical model of program transfer was developed using constructivist-grounded theory methods. Data were generated by conducting in-depth interviews with 18 Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal research respondents who had been active in transferring the program. Data were categorised into higher order abstract concepts and the core impetus for and process of program transfer were identified.

Results

Organizations transferred the program by using it as a vehicle for supporting inside-out empowerment. The impetus to support inside-out empowerment referred to support for Aboriginal people's participation, responsibility for and control of their own affairs, and the associated ripple effects to family members, organizations, communities, and ultimately reconciliation with Australian society at large. Program transfer occurred through a multi-levelled process of embracing relatedness which included relatedness with self, others, and structural conditions; all three were necessary at both individual and organizational levels.

Conclusions

Similar to international implementation models, the model of supporting inside-out empowerment by embracing relatedness involved individuals, organizations, and interpersonal and inter-organizational networks. However, the model suggests that for minority Indigenous populations within developed countries, implementation approaches may require greater attention to the empowering nature of the intervention and its implementation, and multiple levels of relatedness by individuals and organizations with self, others, and the structural conditions. Key elements of the theoretical model provide a useful blueprint to inform the transfer of other empowerment programs to minority Indigenous and other disadvantaged populations on a case-by-case basis.

     

The Choice of Translation Initiation Site of the Rep Proteins from Goose Parvovirus P9-Generated mRNA Is Governed by Splicing and the Nature of the Excised Intron

The goose parvovirus (GPV) Rep 1 and Rep 2 proteins are encoded by P9-generated mRNAs that are either unspliced or spliced within the rep gene region, respectively. These mRNAs are present in an approximately equal ratio. The translation of Rep 1 was initiated from the first AUG in unspliced P9-generated mRNA; however, this AUG was bypassed in spliced P9-generated RNA and Rep 2 translation initiated predominately at the next initiating AUG downstream. We show that the choice of the site of initiation of translation of GPV Rep-encoding mRNAs is governed both by the splicing process itself and by the nature of the excised intron.Goose parvovirus (GPV) has identical hairpin termini, is most similar in both nucleotide sequence and protein homology to adeno-associated virus 2 (AAV2), and has been classified as a member of the Dependovirus genus (10-12); however, unlike the AAVs, GPV can replicate efficiently without the aid of a helper virus (12). The RNA expression profile of GPV is a surprising hybrid of features of the Parvovirus and Dependovirus genera of the Parvovirinae (7). Similar to the Dependovirus AAV5, RNAs transcribed from the GPV upstream P9 promoter, which encode the viral Rep protein(s), are polyadenylated at high efficiency at a polyadenylation [(pA)p] site located within the small intron in the center of the genome (7). No promoter analogous to the Dependovirus P19 promoter has been detected; however, similar to minute virus of mice (MVM) and other members of the Parvovirus genus, approximately half of the pre-mRNAs generated from the P9 promoter are additionally spliced within the putative GPV Rep coding region between a donor site located at nucleotide (nt) 814 and an acceptor site at nt 1198 (7). The GPV RNA profile has been shown to be the same in both human 293T and goose CGBQ cells (7). Thus, the mechanism that GPV uses for the expression of its nonstructural gene is more like that used by members of the autonomous Parvovirus group.In this report, we describe the coding strategy for the nonstructural proteins of GPV. We demonstrate that the large Rep 1 protein is encoded uninterruptedly in open reading frame 1 (ORF 1) from the unspliced P9-generated mRNA using an initiating AUG codon at nt 537. The smaller Rep 2 protein is encoded by the spliced P9-generated mRNA; it initiates in ORF 2 at an AUG at nt 650 and continues in ORF 1 after the splice. Strikingly, the first upstream AUG at nt 537 is not utilized in spliced P9-generated mRNA. We show that the choice of initiation site is governed by the splicing process itself and by the nature of the excised intron.     

Methodological problems in evolutionary biology VI. The force of evolutionary epistemology

Evolutionary epistemology takes various forms. As a philosophical discipline, it may use analogies by borrowing concepts from evolutionary biology to establish new foundations. This is not a very successful enterprise because the analogies involved are so weak that they hardly have explanatory force. It may also veil itself with the garbs of biology. Proponents of this strategy have only produced irrelevant theories by transforming epistemology's concepts beyond recognition. Sensible theories about knowledge and biology should presuppose that various long-standing problems concerning relations between the mental and the physical are solved. Such problems are wrongly disregarded by evolutionary epistemologists.