Carbon sequestration potential of soils in southeast Germany derived from stable soil organic carbon saturation

Sequestration of atmospheric carbon (C) in soils through improved management of forest and agricultural land is considered to have high potential for global CO₂ mitigation. However, the potential of soils to sequester soil organic carbon (SOC) in a stable form, which is limited by the stabilization of SOC against microbial mineralization, is largely unknown. In this study, we estimated the C sequestration potential of soils in southeast Germany by calculating the potential SOC saturation of silt and clay particles according to Hassink [Plant and Soil 191 (1997) 77] on the basis of 516 soil profiles. The determination of the current SOC content of silt and clay fractions for major soil units and land uses allowed an estimation of the C saturation deficit corresponding to the long‐term C sequestration potential. The results showed that cropland soils have a low level of C saturation of around 50% and could store considerable amounts of additional SOC. A relatively high C sequestration potential was also determined for grassland soils. In contrast, forest soils had a low C sequestration potential as they were almost C saturated. A high proportion of sites with a high degree of apparent oversaturation revealed that in acidic, coarse‐textured soils the relation to silt and clay is not suitable to estimate the stable C saturation. A strong correlation of the C saturation deficit with temperature and precipitation allowed a spatial estimation of the C sequestration potential for Bavaria. In total, about 395 Mt CO₂‐equivalents could theoretically be stored in A horizons of cultivated soils – four times the annual emission of greenhouse gases in Bavaria. Although achieving the entire estimated C storage capacity is unrealistic, improved management of cultivated land could contribute significantly to CO₂ mitigation. Moreover, increasing SOC stocks have additional benefits with respect to enhanced soil fertility and agricultural productivity.     

Distributions of carbon in calcareous soils under different land uses in western Iran

Concentrations of Natural stable and unstable carbon in ecosystems have been used extensively to help to understand a wide range of soil processes and functions. This study was conducted to explore the effects of land use changes on different carbon fractions (F₁, F₂, F₃ and F₄), permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC), soil organic carbon (SOC) and total organic carbon (TOC) associated with soils in calcareous soils of western Iran. Four popular land uses in the selected site including natural forest, range land, dryland farming and irrigated farming systems were employed as the basis of soil sampling. The results showed a strong relationship between land use conversion and SOC stocks changes. The greatest mean values for carbon content and the least mean values of CaCO₃ in bulk topsoil (0–15 cm) in the forest land were observed. Dryland farming had the least both active and passive pools of C in comparison with the other land uses. The positive and significant correlations was observed between SOC, Total C and POXC contents and different C fractions. Taking C and POXC pools into account, a more definitive picture of the soil C is obtained than when only total C is measured. The influence of land use changes on overall soil carbon stocks could be helpful for making management decision for farmers and policy makers in the future, for enhancing the potential of C sequestration in western Iran.     

From forest to cropland and pasture systems: a critical review of soil organic carbon stocks changes in Amazonia

The impact of deforestation on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks is important in the context of climate change and agricultural soil use. Trends of SOC stock changes after agroecosystem establishment vary according to the spatial scale considered, and factors explaining these trends may differ sometimes according to meta‐analyses. We have reviewed the knowledge about changes in SOC stocks in Amazonia after the establishment of pasture or cropland, sought relationships between observed changes and soil, climatic variables and management practices, and synthesized the δ¹³C measured in pastures. Our dataset consisted of 21 studies mostly synchronic, across 52 sites (Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Suriname), totalling 70 forest–agroecosystem comparisons. We found that pastures (n = 52, mean age = 17.6 years) had slightly higher SOC stocks than forest (+6.8 ± 3.1 %), whereas croplands (n = 18, mean age = 8.7 years) had lower SOC stocks than forest (?8.5 ± 2.9 %). Annual precipitation and SOC stocks under forest had no effect on the SOC changes in the agroecosystems. For croplands, we found a lower SOC loss than other meta‐analyses, but the short time period after deforestation here could have reduced this loss. There was no clear effect of tillage on the SOC response. Management of pastures, whether they were degraded/nominal/improved, had no significant effect on SOC response. δ¹³C measurements on 16 pasture chronosequences showed that decay of forest‐derived SOC was variable, whereas pasture‐derived SOC was less so and was characterized by an accumulation plateau of 20 Mg SOC ha^?1 after 20 years. The large uncertainties in SOC response observed could be derived from the chronosequence approach, sensitive to natural soil variability and to human management practices. This study emphasizes the need for diachronic and long‐term studies, associated with better knowledge of agroecosystem management.     

Soil carbon sequestration potential of permanent pasture and continuous cropping soils in New Zealand

Understanding soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration is important to develop strategies to increase the SOC stock and, thereby, offset some of the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Although the capacity of soils to store SOC in a stable form is commonly attributed to the fine (clay + fine silt) fraction, the properties of the fine fraction that determine the SOC stabilization capacity are poorly known. The aim of this study was to develop an improved model to estimate the SOC stabilization capacity of Allophanic (Andisols) and non‐Allophanic topsoils (0–15 cm) and, as a case study, to apply the model to predict the sequestration potential of pastoral soils across New Zealand. A quantile (90th) regression model, based on the specific surface area and extractable aluminium (pyrophosphate) content of soils, provided the best prediction of the upper limit of fine fraction carbon (FFC) (i.e. the stabilization capacity), but with different coefficients for Allophanic and non‐Allophanic soils. The carbon (C) saturation deficit was estimated as the difference between the stabilization capacity of individual soils and their current C concentration. For long‐term pastures, the mean saturation deficit of Allophanic soils (20.3 mg C g^?1) was greater than that of non‐Allophanic soils (16.3 mg C g^?1). The saturation deficit of cropped soils was 1.14–1.89 times that of pasture soils. The sequestration potential of pasture soils ranged from 10 t C ha^?1 (Ultic soils) to 42 t C ha^?1 (Melanic soils). Although meeting the estimated national soil C sequestration potential (124 Mt C) is unrealistic, improved management practices targeted to those soils with the greatest sequestration potential could contribute significantly to off‐setting New Zealand's greenhouse gas emissions. As the first national‐scale estimate of SOC sequestration potential that encompasses both Allophanic and non‐Allophanic soils, this serves as an informative case study for the international community.     

Response of soil carbon dioxide fluxes,soil organic carbon and microbial biomass carbon to biochar amendment: a meta‐analysis

Biochar as a carbon‐rich coproduct of pyrolyzing biomass, its amendment has been advocated as a potential strategy to soil carbon (C) sequestration. Updated data derived from 50 papers with 395 paired observations were reviewed using meta‐analysis procedures to examine responses of soil carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes, soil organic C (SOC), and soil microbial biomass C (MBC) contents to biochar amendment. When averaged across all studies, biochar amendment had no significant effect on soil CO₂ fluxes, but it significantly enhanced SOC content by 40% and MBC content by 18%. A positive response of soil CO₂ fluxes to biochar amendment was found in rice paddies, laboratory incubation studies, soils without vegetation, and unfertilized soils. Biochar amendment significantly increased soil MBC content in field studies, N‐fertilized soils, and soils with vegetation. Enhancement of SOC content following biochar amendment was the greatest in rice paddies among different land‐use types. Responses of soil CO₂ fluxes and MBC to biochar amendment varied with soil texture and pH. The use of biochar in combination with synthetic N fertilizer and waste compost fertilizer led to the greatest increases in soil CO₂ fluxes and MBC content, respectively. Both soil CO₂ fluxes and MBC responses to biochar amendment decreased with biochar application rate, pyrolysis temperature, or C/N ratio of biochar, while each increased SOC content enhancement. Among different biochar feedstock sources, positive responses of soil CO₂ fluxes and MBC were the highest for manure and crop residue feedstock sources, respectively. Soil CO₂ flux responses to biochar amendment decreased with pH of biochar, while biochars with pH of 8.1–9.0 had the greatest enhancement of SOC and MBC contents. Therefore, soil properties, land‐use type, agricultural practice, and biochar characteristics should be taken into account to assess the practical potential of biochar for mitigating climate change.     

Conversion from forests to pastures in the Colombian Amazon leads to contrasting soil carbon dynamics depending on land management practices

Strategies to mitigate climate change by reducing deforestation and forest degradation (e.g. REDD+) require country‐ or region‐specific information on temporal changes in forest carbon (C) pools to develop accurate emission factors. The soil C pool is one of the most important C reservoirs, but is rarely included in national forest reference emission levels due to a lack of data. Here, we present the soil organic C (SOC) dynamics along 20 years of forest‐to‐pasture conversion in two subregions with different management practices during pasture establishment in the Colombian Amazon: high‐grazing intensity (HG) and low‐grazing intensity (LG) subregions. We determined the pattern of SOC change resulting from the conversion from forest (C3 plants) to pasture (C4 plants) by analysing total SOC stocks and the natural abundance of the stable isotopes ¹³C along two 20‐year chronosequences identified in each subregion. We also analysed soil N stocks and the natural abundance of ¹⁵N during pasture establishment. In general, total SOC stocks at 30 cm depth in the forest were similar for both subregions, with an average of 47.1 ± 1.8 Mg C ha^?1 in HG and 48.7 ± 3.1 Mg C ha^?1 in LG. However, 20 years after forest‐to‐pasture conversion SOC in HG decreased by 20%, whereas in LG SOC increased by 41%. This net SOC decrease in HG was due to a larger reduction in C3‐derived input and to a comparatively smaller increase in C4‐derived C input. In LG both C3‐ and C4‐derived C input increased along the chronosequence. N stocks were generally similar in both subregions and soil N stock changes during pasture establishment were correlated with SOC changes. These results emphasize the importance of management practices involving low‐grazing intensity in cattle activities to preserve SOC stocks and to reduce C emissions after land‐cover change from forest to pasture in the Colombian Amazon.     

Carbon Sequestration in Reclaimed Minesoils

Minesoils are drastically influenced by anthropogenic activities. They are characterized by low soil organic matter (SOM) content, low fertility, and poor physicochemical and biological properties, limiting their quality, capability, and functions. Reclamation of these soils has potential for resequestering some of the C lost and mitigating CO₂ emissions. Soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration rates in minesoils are high in the first 20 to 30 years after reclamation in the top 15 cm soil depth. In general, higher rates of SOC sequestration are observed for minesoils under pasture and grassland management than under forest land use. Observed rates of SOC sequestration are 0.3 to 1.85 Mg C ha^{? 1} yr^{? 1} for pastures and rangelands, and 0.2 to 1.64 Mg C ha^{? 1} yr^{? 1} for forest land use. Proper reclamation and postreclamation management may enhance SOC sequestration and add to the economic value of the mined sites. Management practices that may enhance SOC sequestration include increasing vegetative cover by deep-rooted perennial vegetation and afforestation, improving soil fertility, and alleviation of physical, chemical and biological limitations by fertilizers and soil amendments such as biosolids, manure, coal combustion by-products, and mulches. Soil and water conservation are important to SOC sequestration. The potential of SOC sequestration in minesoils of the US is estimated to be 1.28 Tg C yr^?1, compared to the emissions from coal combustion of 506 Tg C yr^{? 1}.     

Land use change and the global carbon cycle: the role of tropical soils

Millions of hectares of tropical forest are cleared annually for agriculture, pasture, shifting cultivation and timber. One result of these changes in land use is the release of CO₂ from the cleared vegetation and soils. Although there is uncertainty as to the size of this release, it appears to be a major source of atmospheric CO₂, second only to the release from the combustion of fossil fuels. This study estimates the release of CO₂ from tropical soils using a computer model that simulates land use change in the tropics and data on (1) the carbon content of forest soils before clearing; (2) the changes in the carbon content under the various types of land use; and (3) the area of forest converted to each use. It appears that the clearing and use of tropical soils affects their carbon content to a depth of about 40 cm. Soils of tropical closed forests contain approximately 6.7 kg C · m^-2; soils of tropical open forests contain approximately 5.2 kg C · m^-2 to this depth. The cultivation of tropical soils reduces their carbon content by 40% 5 yr after clearing; the use of these soils for pasture reduces it by about 20%. Logging in tropical forests appears to have little effect on soil carbon. The carbon content of soils used by shifting cultivators returns to the level found under primary forest about 35 yr after abandonment. The estimated net release of carbon from tropical soils due to land use change was 0.11–0.26 × 10¹⁵ g in 1980.     

Temporal response of soil organic carbon after grassland‐related land‐use change

The net flux of CO₂ exchanged with the atmosphere following grassland‐related land‐use change (LUC) depends on the subsequent temporal dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC). Yet, the magnitude and timing of these dynamics are still unclear. We compiled a global data set of 836 paired‐sites to quantify temporal SOC changes after grassland‐related LUC. In order to discriminate between SOC losses from the initial ecosystem and gains from the secondary one, the post‐LUC time series of SOC data was combined with satellite‐based net primary production observations as a proxy of carbon input to the soil. Globally, land conversion from either cropland or forest into grassland leads to SOC accumulation; the reverse shows net SOC loss. The SOC response curves vary between different regions. Conversion of cropland to managed grassland results in more SOC accumulation than natural grassland recovery from abandoned cropland. We did not consider the biophysical variables (e.g., climate conditions and soil properties) when fitting the SOC turnover rate into the observation data but analyzed the relationships between the fitted turnover rate and these variables. The SOC turnover rate is significantly correlated with temperature and precipitation (p < 0.05), but not with the clay fraction of soils (p > 0.05). Comparing our results with predictions from bookkeeping models, we found that bookkeeping models overestimate by 56% of the long‐term (100 years horizon) cumulative SOC emissions for grassland‐related LUC types in tropical and temperate regions since 2000. We also tested the spatial representativeness of our data set and calculated SOC response curves using the representative subset of sites in each region. Our study provides new insight into the impact grassland‐related LUC on the global carbon budget and sheds light on the potential of grassland conservation for climate mitigation.     

Spatial analysis of soil organic carbon evolution in Belgian croplands and grasslands, 1960–2006

Given the importance of soil organic carbon (SOC) as a pool in the global carbon cycle and an indicator for soil quality, there exits an urgent need to monitor this dynamic soil property. Here, we present a modelling approach to analyze the spatial patterns and temporal evolution of organic carbon in mineral soils under agricultural land use in Belgium. An empirical model, predicting the SOC concentration in the top 0.3 m, as a function of precipitation, land use, soil type and management has been constructed and applied within a spatial context using data from different time slices. The results show that SOC content is strongly correlated with precipitation and temperature under cropland and with texture and drainage under grassland. Total SOC stock increased with 1.3% from 6.18 ± 0.03 kg C m^?2 in 1960 to 6.26 ± 0.07 kg C m^?2 in 2006. Although this increase was not significant (P>0.05), a significant discrepancy between cropland (?8%) and grassland (+10%) was observed. Foremost, the grasslands in the hilly southern part of the country, under relatively wet climate conditions, acted as important sinks of CO₂. Under cropland, all soil types were characterized by a decrease in SOC, except for the clay soils in the north‐west. Currently, croplands in the central loam region have SOC concentrations close to 10 g C kg^?1 indicating that these soils are at risk of a decline in aggregate stability. An overall strong SOC decline in poorly drained soils is probably caused by artificial drainage. Further research is needed to gain more insight into the processes driving the observed SOC trends. Moreover, the use of updated drainage class information and land management history would improve the empirical models.     

Land use induced changes of organic carbon storage in soils of China

Using the data compiled from China's second national soil survey and an improved method of soil carbon bulk density, we have estimated the changes of soil organic carbon due to land use, and compared the spatial distribution and storage of soil organic carbon (SOC) in cultivated soils and noncultivated soils in China. The results reveal that ～ 57% of the cultivated soil subgroups ( ～ 31% of the total soil surface) have experienced a significant carbon loss, ranging from 40% to 10% relative to their noncultivated counterparts. The most significant carbon loss is observed for the non‐irrigated soils (dry farmland) within a semiarid/semihumid belt from northeastern to southwestern China, with the maximum loss occurring in northeast China. On the contrary, SOC has increased in the paddy and irrigated soils in northwest China. No significant change is observed for forest soils in southern China, grassland and desert soils in northwest China, as well as irrigated soils in eastern China. The SOC storage and density under noncultivated conditions in China are estimated to ～ 77.4 Pg (10¹⁵ g) and ～ 8.8 kg C m^?2, respectively, compared to a SOC storage of ～ 70.3 Pg and an average SOC density of ～ 8.0 kg C m^?2 under the present‐day conditions. This suggests a loss of ～ 7.1 Pg SOC and a decrease of ～ 0.8 kg C m^?2 SOC density due to increasing human activities, in which the loss in organic horizons has contributed to ～ 77%. This total loss of SOC in China induced by land use represents ～ 9.5% of the world's SOC decrease. This amount is equivalent to ～ 3.5 ppmv of the atmospheric CO₂ increase. Since ～ 78% of the currently cultivated soils in China have been degraded to a low/medium productivities and are responsible for most of the SOC loss, an improved land management, such as the development of irrigated and paddy land uses, would have a considerable potential in restoring the SOC storage. Assuming a restoration of ～ 50% of the lost SOC during the next 20–50 years, the soils in China would absorb ～ 3.5 Pg of carbon from the atmosphere.     

Temperature and vegetation effects on soil organic carbon quality along a forested mean annual temperature gradient in North America

Both climate and plant species are hypothesized to influence soil organic carbon (SOC) quality, but accurate prediction of how SOC process rates respond to global change will require an improved understanding of how SOC quality varies with mean annual temperature (MAT) and forest type. We investigated SOC quality in paired hardwood and pine stands growing in coarse textured soils located along a 22 °C gradient in MAT. To do this, we conducted 80‐day incubation experiments at 10 and 30 °C to quantify SOC decomposition rates, which we used to kinetically define SOC quality. We used these experiments to test the hypotheses that SOC quality decreases with MAT, and that SOC quality is higher under pine than hardwood tree species. We found that both SOC quantity and quality decreased with increasing MAT. During the 30 °C incubation, temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀) values were strongly and positively related to SOC decomposition rates, indicating that substrate supply can influence temperature responsiveness of SOC decomposition rates. For a limited number of dates, Q₁₀ was negatively related to MAT. Soil chemical properties could not explain observed patterns in soil quality. Soil pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC) both declined with increasing MAT, and soil C quality was positively related to pH but negatively related to CEC. Clay mineralogy of soils also could not explain patterns of SOC quality as complex (2 : 1), high CEC clay minerals occurred in cold climate soils while warm climate soils were dominated by simpler (1 : 1), low CEC clay minerals. While hardwood sites contained more SOC than pine sites, with differences declining with MAT, clay content was also higher in hardwood soils. In contrast, there was no difference in SOC quality between pine and hardwood soils. Overall, these findings indicate that SOC quantity and quality may both decrease in response to global warming, despite long‐term changes in soil chemistry and mineralogy that favor decomposition.     

Differences in the soil microbial community and carbon‐use efficiency following development of Vochysia guatemalensis tree plantations in unproductive pastures in Costa Rica

This study shows that Vochysia guatemalensis tree plantations were associated with enhanced soil biotic and abiotic characteristics in previously cleared forests in the northern zone of Costa Rica, suggesting the possible use of this practice as a restoration strategy for local land owners. Soil samples from a primary forest, secondary forest, and a 13‐year‐old plantation of V. guatemalensis had greater relative abundances of DNA sequences of microbial genera critical for carbon‐use (C‐use) efficiency (i.e. the saprobe, complex C and wood rot/lignin decomposer fungi, and bacterial lignin and other complex C degraders), and greater levels of total organic carbon, C‐biomass, and microbial quotients as indicators of enhanced C‐use efficiency, than found in soils of adjacent 5‐year‐old V. guatemalensis plantations and abandoned non‐productive pasture/grasslands (GRs). The major research conclusions were that (1) conversion of forested land into abandoned pasture/GRs decreased the C‐use efficiency in the soils and the microbial groups associated with C‐use efficiency; (2) soils in plantations of V. guatemalensis were associated with increased abundances of the DNA of these same microbial groups and enhanced C‐use efficiency; (3) DNA‐based taxonomic analysis of microbes and analysis of the microbial quotient values can be used to monitor soil ecosystems for assessment of the efficacy of restoration activities. Thus, planting V. guatemalensis on damaged lands in the Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge should be encouraged to provide a sustainable forestry crop that can be harvested rotationally, while improving soil ecosystem health and reducing the pressure to harvest other forest sites.     

Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis

The effects of land use change on soil carbon stocks are of concern in the context of international policy agendas on greenhouse gas emissions mitigation. This paper reviews the literature for the influence of land use changes on soil C stocks and reports the results of a meta analysis of these data from 74 publications. The meta analysis indicates that soil C stocks decline after land use changes from pasture to plantation (?10%), native forest to plantation (?13%), native forest to crop (?42%), and pasture to crop (?59%). Soil C stocks increase after land use changes from native forest to pasture (+ 8%), crop to pasture (+ 19%), crop to plantation (+ 18%), and crop to secondary forest (+ 53%). Wherever one of the land use changes decreased soil C, the reverse process usually increased soil carbon and vice versa. As the quantity of available data is not large and the methodologies used are diverse, the conclusions drawn must be regarded as working hypotheses from which to design future targeted investigations that broaden the database. Within some land use changes there were, however, sufficient examples to explore the role of other factors contributing to the above conclusions. One outcome of the meta analysis, especially worthy of further investigation in the context of carbon sink strategies for greenhouse gas mitigation, is that broadleaf tree plantations placed onto prior native forest or pastures did not affect soil C stocks whereas pine plantations reduced soil C stocks by 12–15%.     

Influence of spatially dependent,modeled soil carbon emission factors on life‐cycle greenhouse gas emissions of corn and cellulosic ethanol

Converting land to biofuel feedstock production incurs changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) that can influence biofuel life‐cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Estimates of these land use change (LUC) and life‐cycle GHG emissions affect biofuels' attractiveness and eligibility under a number of renewable fuel policies in the USA and abroad. Modeling was used to refine the spatial resolution and depth extent of domestic estimates of SOC change for land (cropland, cropland pasture, grassland, and forest) conversion scenarios to biofuel crops (corn, corn stover, switchgrass, Miscanthus, poplar, and willow) at the county level in the USA. Results show that in most regions, conversions from cropland and cropland pasture to biofuel crops led to neutral or small levels of SOC sequestration, while conversion of grassland and forest generally caused net SOC loss. SOC change results were incorporated into the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model to assess their influence on life‐cycle GHG emissions of corn and cellulosic ethanol. Total LUC GHG emissions (g CO₂eq MJ^?1) were 2.1–9.3 for corn‐, ?0.7 for corn stover‐, ?3.4 to 12.9 for switchgrass‐, and ?20.1 to ?6.2 for Miscanthus ethanol; these varied with SOC modeling assumptions applied. Extending the soil depth from 30 to 100 cm affected spatially explicit SOC change and overall LUC GHG emissions; however, the influence on LUC GHG emission estimates was less significant in corn and corn stover than cellulosic feedstocks. Total life‐cycle GHG emissions (g CO₂eq MJ^?1, 100 cm) were estimated to be 59–66 for corn ethanol, 14 for stover ethanol, 18–26 for switchgrass ethanol, and ?7 to ?0.6 for Miscanthus ethanol. The LUC GHG emissions associated with poplar‐ and willow‐derived ethanol may be higher than that for switchgrass ethanol due to lower biomass yield.     

Soil organic carbon stocks in Laos: spatial variations and controlling factors

Surface soils, which contain the largest pool of terrestrial organic carbon (C), may be able to sequester atmospheric C and thus mitigate climate change. However, this remains controversial, largely due to insufficient data and knowledge gaps in respect of organic C contents and stocks in soils and the main factors of their control. Up to now and despite numerous evaluations of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks worldwide, the sloping lands of southeast Asia, one of the most biogeochemically active regions of the world, remain uninvestigated. Our main objective was to quantify SOC stocks and to evaluate the impact of various environmental factors. We, therefore, selected Laos with 230 566 km² of mostly forested steep slopes, and where cultivation is still mainly traditional, i.e. a system of shifting cultivation without fertilization or mechanical tillage. Analytical data from 3471 soil profiles demonstrated that the top 1 m of soil depth holds an estimated 4.64 billion tons of SOC, 65% of which is in the first 0.3 m. SOC stocks to 0.3 m exhibit a high coefficient of variation (CV=62%) with values from 1.8 to 771 Mg C ha^?1 and a mean at 129 Mg C ha^?1. Furthermore, these stocks are significantly (at P<0.05 level) affected by land use as shown by principal components analysis and t‐tests with the largest amount being found under forest, less under shifting cultivation and the smallest under continuous cultivation. Moreover, SOC stocks correlated regionally to total annual rainfalls and latitude, and locally at the hill‐slope level to the distance to the stream network and the slope angle. It is hypothesized that this correlation is through actions on mineral weathering, soil clay content, soil fertility and SOC redistributions in landscapes. These relationships between SOC stocks and environmental factors may be of further use in (1) predicting the impact of global changes on future SOC stocks; and (2) identifying optimal strategies for land use planning so as to minimize soil C emissions to the atmosphere while maximizing carbon sequestration in soils.     

CO2 flux from soil in pastures and forests in southwestern Amazonia

Stocks of carbon in Amazonian forest biomass and soils have received considerable research attention because of their potential as sources and sinks of atmospheric CO₂. Fluxes of CO₂ from soil to the atmosphere, on the other hand, have not been addressed comprehensively in regard to temporal and spatial variations and to land cover change, and have been measured directly only in a few locations in Amazonia. Considerable variation exists across the Amazon Basin in soil properties, climate, and management practices in forests and cattle pastures that might affect soil CO₂ fluxes. Here we report soil CO₂ fluxes from an area of rapid deforestation in the southwestern Amazonian state of Acre. Specifically we addressed (1) the seasonal variation of soil CO₂ fluxes, soil moisture, and soil temperature; (2) the effects of land cover (pastures, mature, and secondary forests) on these fluxes; (3) annual estimates of soil respiration; and (4) the relative contributions of grass‐derived and forest‐derived C as indicated by δ¹³CO₂. Fluxes were greatest during the wet season and declined during the dry season in all land covers. Soil respiration was significantly correlated with soil water‐filled pore space but not correlated with temperature. Annual fluxes were higher in pastures compared with mature and secondary forests, and some of the pastures also had higher soil C stocks. The δ¹³C of CO₂ respired in pasture soils showed that high respiration rates in pastures were derived almost entirely from grass root respiration and decomposition of grass residues. These results indicate that the pastures are very productive and that the larger flux of C cycling through pasture soils compared with forest soils is probably due to greater allocation of C belowground. Secondary forests had soil respiration rates similar to mature forests, and there was no correlation between soil respiration and either forest age or forest biomass. Hence, belowground allocation of C does not appear to be directly related to the stature of vegetation in this region. Variation in seasonal and annual rates of soil respiration of these forests and pastures is more indicative of flux of C through the soil rather than major net changes in ecosystem C stocks.     

Long-term impacts of anthropogenic perturbations on dynamics and speciation of organic carbon in tropical forest and subtropical grassland ecosystems

Anthropogenic perturbations have profoundly modified the Earth's biogeochemical cycles, the most prominent of these changes being manifested by global carbon (C) cycling. We investigated long‐term effects of human‐induced land‐use and land‐cover changes from native tropical forest (Kenya) and subtropical grassland (South Africa) ecosystems to agriculture on the dynamics and structural composition of soil organic C (SOC) using elemental analysis and integrated ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), near‐edge X‐ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) and synchrotron‐based Fourier transform infrared‐attenuated total reflectance (Sr‐FTIR‐ATR) spectroscopy. Anthropogenic interventions led to the depletion of 76%, 86% and 67% of the total SOC; and 77%, 85% and 66% of the N concentrations from the surface soils of Nandi, Kakamega and the South African sites, respectively, over a period of up to 100 years. Significant proportions of the total SOC (46–73%) and N (37–73%) losses occurred during the first 4 years of conversion indicating that these forest‐ and grassland‐derived soils contain large amounts of labile soil organic matter (SOM), potentially vulnerable to degradation upon human‐induced land‐use and land‐cover changes. Anthropogenic perturbations altered not only the C sink capacity of these soils, but also the functional group composition and dynamics of SOC with time, rendering structural composition of the resultant organic matter in the agricultural soils to be considerably different from the SOM under natural forest and grassland ecosystems. These molecular level compositional changes were manifested: (i) by the continued degradation of O‐alkyl and acetal‐C structures found in carbohydrate and holocellulose biomolecules, some labile aliphatic‐C functionalities, (ii) by side‐chain oxidation of phenylpropane units of lignin and (iii) by the continued aromatization and aliphatization of the humic fractions possibly through selective accumulation of recalcitrant H and C substituted aryl‐C and aliphatic‐C components such as (poly)‐methylene units, respectively. These changes appeared as early as the fourth year after transition, and their intensity increased with duration of cultivation until a new quasi‐equilibrium of SOC was approached at about 20 years after conversion. However, subtle but persistent changes in molecular structures of the resultant SOM continued long after (up to 100 years) a steady state for SOC was approached. These molecular level changes in the inherent structural composition of SOC may exert considerable influence on biogeochemical cycling of C and bioavailability of essential nutrients present in association with SOM, and may significantly affect the sustainability of agriculture as well as potentials of the soils to sequester C in these tropical and subtropical highland agroecosystems.     

Carbon sequestration under Miscanthus: a study of 13C distribution in soil aggregates

The growing of bioenergy crops has been widely suggested as a key strategy in mitigating anthropogenic CO₂ emissions. However, the full mitigation potential of these crops cannot be assessed without taking into account their effect on soil carbon (C) dynamics. Therefore, we analyzed the C dynamics through four soil depths under a 14‐year‐old Miscanthus plantation, established on former arable land. An adjacent arable field was used as a reference site. Combining soil organic matter (SOM) fractionation with ¹³C natural abundance analyses, we were able to trace the fate of Miscanthus‐derived C in various physically protected soil fractions. Integrated through the whole soil profile, the total amount of soil organic carbon (SOC) was higher under Miscanthus than under arable crop, this difference was largely due to the input of new C. The C stock of the macroaggregates (M) under Miscanthus was significantly higher than those in the arable land. Additionally, the C content of the micro‐within macroaggregates (mM) were higher in the Miscanthus soil as compared with the arable soil. Analysis of the intramicroaggregates particulate organic matter (POM) suggested that the increase C storage in mM under Miscanthus was caused by a decrease in disturbance of M. Thus, the difference in C content between the two land use systems is largely caused by soil C storage in physically protected SOM fractions. We conclude that when Miscanthus is planted on former arable land, the resulting increase in soil C storage contributes considerably to its CO₂ mitigation potential.     

Carbon storage capacity of semi‐arid grassland soils and sequestration potentials in northern China

Organic carbon (OC) sequestration in degraded semi‐arid environments by improved soil management is assumed to contribute substantially to climate change mitigation. However, information about the soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration potential in steppe soils and their current saturation status remains unknown. In this study, we estimated the OC storage capacity of semi‐arid grassland soils on the basis of remote, natural steppe fragments in northern China. Based on the maximum OC saturation of silt and clay particles <20 μm, OC sequestration potentials of degraded steppe soils (grazing land, arable land, eroded areas) were estimated. The analysis of natural grassland soils revealed a strong linear regression between the proportion of the fine fraction and its OC content, confirming the importance of silt and clay particles for OC stabilization in steppe soils. This relationship was similar to derived regressions in temperate and tropical soils but on a lower level, probably due to a lower C input and different clay mineralogy. In relation to the estimated OC storage capacity, degraded steppe soils showed a high OC saturation of 78–85% despite massive SOC losses due to unsustainable land use. As a result, the potential of degraded grassland soils to sequester additional OC was generally low. This can be related to a relatively high contribution of labile SOC, which is preferentially lost in the course of soil degradation. Moreover, wind erosion leads to substantial loss of silt and clay particles and consequently results in a direct loss of the ability to stabilize additional OC. Our findings indicate that the SOC loss in semi‐arid environments induced by intensive land use is largely irreversible. Observed SOC increases after improved land management mainly result in an accumulation of labile SOC prone to land use/climate changes and therefore cannot be regarded as contribution to long‐term OC sequestration.