Unique Mechanisms of Excitation Energy Transfer, Electron Transfer and Photoisomerization in Biological Systems

We discuss unique mechanisms typical in the elementary processes ofbiological functions. We focus on three topics. Excitation energytransfer in the light-harvesting antenna systems of photosyntheticbacteria is unique in its structure and the energy transfer mechanism. Inthe case of LH2 of Rhodopseudomonas acidophila, the B850 intra-ringenergy transfer and the inter-ring energy transfer between B800 and B850take place by the intermediate coupling mechanism of energy transfer. Theexcitonic coherent domain shows a wave-like movement along the ring, andthis property is expected to play a significant role in the inter-ringenergy transfer between LH2's. The electron transfer in biological systemsis mostly long-range electron transfer that occurs by the electrontunneling through the protein media. There is a long-standing problem thatwhich part of protein media is used for the electron tunneling root. As aresult of our detailed analysis, we found that the global electron tunnelingroot is a little winded with a width of a few angstrom, reflecting theproperty of tertiary and secondary structures of the protein and it isaffected by the thermal fluctuation of protein structure. Photoisomerizationof rhodopsin is very unique: The cis-transphotoisomerization ofrhodopsin occurs only around the C11 = C12 bond in the counterclockwisedirection. Its molecular mechanism is resolved by our MD simulation studyusing the structure of rhodopsin which was recently obtained by the X-raycrystallographic analysis.     

A Nonadiabatic Theory for Ultrafast Catalytic Electron Transfer: A Model for the Photosynthetic Reaction Center

A non-adiabatic theory of Electron Transfer (ET), which improves the standard theory near the inversion point and becomes equivalent to it far from the inversion point, is presented. The complex amplitudes of the electronic wavefunctions at different sites are used as Kramers variables for describing the quantum tunneling of the electron in the deformable potential generated by its environment (nonadiabaticity) which is modeled as a harmonic classical thermal bath. After exact elimination of the bath, the effective electron dynamics is described by a discrete nonlinear Schrödinger equation with norm preserving dissipative terms and a Langevin random force, with a frequency cut-off, due to the thermalized phonons. This theory reveals the existence of a specially interesting marginal case when the linear and nonlinear coefficients of a two electronic states system are appropriately tuned for forming a Coherent Electron-Phonon Oscillator (CEPO). An electron injected on one of the electronic states of a CEPO generates large amplitude charge oscillations (even at zero temperature) associated with coherent phonon oscillations and electronic level oscillations. This fluctuating electronic level may resonate with a third site which captures the electron so that Ultrafast Electron Transfer (UFET) becomes possible. Numerical results are shown where two weakly interacting sites, a donor and a catalyst, form a CEPO that triggers an UFET to an acceptor. Without a catalytic site, a very large energy barrier prevents any direct ET. This UFET is shown to have many qualitative features similar to those observed in the primary charge separation in photosynthetic reaction centers. We suggest that more generally, CEPO could be a paradigm for understanding many selective chemical reactions involving electron transfer in biosystems.     

Dynamical Theory of Primary Processes of Charge Separation in the Photosynthetic Reaction Center

A dynamical theory has been developed for primary separation of charges in the course of photosynthesis. The theory deals with both hopping and superexchange transfer mechanisms. Dynamics of electron transfer from dimeric bacteriochlorophyll to quinone has been calculated. The results obtained agree with experimental data and provide a unified explanation of both the hierarchy of the transfer time in the photosynthetic reaction center and the phenomenon of coherent oscillations accompanying the transfer process.     

Enhanced Electron Transfer by Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Superoxide Dismutase

We have previously shown that unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) facilitate electron transfer between iron centers such as ferrous iron and ferricytochrome C. Extending this concept to a more physiologic model of fatty acids associated with proteins, we find that electron transfer is also enhanced in this model. While investigating whether free superoxide was involved in this electron transfer, we discovered that superoxide dismutase (SOD) enchanced the electron transfer. While the mechanism of electron transfer is unknown, the above findings are consistent with UFA and SOD participating in membrane redox systems.     

微生物种间直接电子传递研究进展

一直以来氢气和甲酸被认为是微生物间电子传递的中间电子传递体.近年来的研究发现,微生物之间可以通过种间直接电子传递(DIET)来替代氢气/甲酸传递.DIET作为一种新发现的微生物间电子传递途径,其电子传递效率要高于传统的种间氢气/甲酸传递.DIET这一新发现改变了微生物互营生长代谢必须依赖氢气或甲酸等电子载体的传统认识,...     

导电材料强化微生物直接种间电子传递产甲烷的研究进展

厌氧条件下,微生物可以通过厌氧代谢产生甲烷(CH_4),由此衍生的厌氧消化技术可实现能源的回收利用。产CH_4的关键步骤是刺激发酵细菌和产甲烷古菌之间的有效电子转移,电活性微生物可以取代传统的氢/甲酸盐实现直接种间电子传递,其电子传递效率更高。添加导电材料可以促进直接种间电子传递并提高CH_4产率,是一种更有效的强化电子传递方式。本文在梳理直接种间电子传递发展和机理的基础上,综述了常见的促进直接种间电子传递的碳基和铁基导电材料,对其结构特征、电子传递机理、强化产CH_4和中间产物消耗等方面进行了系统总结。旨在为导电材料促进直接种间电子传递的研究提供参考,并探讨了未来可能的研究方向。     

Electron transfer in peptides and proteins

Proteins and peptides use their amino acids as medium for electron-transfer reactions that occur either in single-step superexchange or in multistep hopping processes. Whereas the rate of the single-step electron transfer dramatically decreases with the distance, a hopping process is less distance dependent. Electron hopping is possible if amino acids carry oxidizable side chains, like the phenol group in tyrosine. These side chains become intermediate charge carriers. Because of the weak distance dependency of hopping processes, fast electron transfer over very long distances occurs in multistep reactions, as in the enzyme ribonucleotide reductase.     

Extracellular Electron Transfer Between Birnessite and Electrochemically Active Bacteria Community from Red Soil in Hainan,China

The interplay between electrochemically active microorganisms (EAMs) and adjacent minerals universally occurs in natural environments, in which soil is an extremely typical and active one. We stimulated the extracellular electron transfer (EET) process between the bacterial community and birnessite in red soil (collected from Hainan, China) by constructing a microbial fuel cell equipped with synthetic birnessite cathode. Compared to graphite-cathode, the cell voltage of birnessite-cathode was increased by 22% when loading a 1000 Ω-resistance, indicating the EET between microbes and birnessite. Eleven genera of EAMs in red soil were confirmed through 16S rRNA analysis. Neither palpable novel mineral formation nor change of birnessite crystallinity was observed after reaction by Raman and SEM. As oxygen pumped into cathode chamber was the terminal electron acceptor, birnessite principally performed as an intermediate of holistic electron transfer process to favor the cathodic oxygen reduction.     

A “parallel plate” electrostatic model for bimolecular rate constants applied to electron transfer proteins

A “parallel plate” model describing the electrostatic potential energy of protein-protein interactions is presented that provides an analytical representation of the effect of ionic strength on a bimolecular rate constant. The model takes into account the asymmetric distribution of charge on the surface of the protein and localized charges at the site of electron transfer that are modeled as elements of a parallel plate condenser. Both monopolar and dipolar interactions are included. Examples of simple (monophasic) and complex (biphasic) ionic strength dependencies obtained from experiments with several electron transfer protein systems are presented, all of which can be accommodated by the model. The simple cases do not require the use of both monopolar and dipolar terms (i.e., they can be fit well by either alone). The biphasic dependencies can be fit only by using dipolar and monopolar terms of opposite sign, which is physically unreasonable for the molecules considered. Alternatively, the high ionic strength portion of the complex dependencies can be fit using either the monopolar term alone or the complete equation; this assumes a model in which such behavior is a consequence of electron transfer mechanisms involving changes in orientation or site of reaction as the ionic strength is varied. Based on these analyses, we conclude that the principal applications of the model presented here are to provide information about the structural properties of intermediate electron transfer complexes and to quantify comparisons between related proteins or site-specific mutants. We also conclude that the relative contributions of monopolar and dipolar effects to protein electron transfer kinetics cannot be evaluated from experimental data by present approximations.     

矿物电子能量协同微生物胞外电子传递与生长代谢

矿物是无机自然界吸收与转化能量的重要载体,其与微生物的胞外电子传递过程体现出矿物电子能量对微生物生长代谢与能量获取方式的影响。根据电子来源与产生途径,以往研究表明矿物中变价元素原子最外层或次外层价电子与半导体矿物导带上的光电子是微生物可以利用的两种不同胞外电子能量形式,其产生及传递方式与微生物胞外电子传递的电子载体密切相关。在协同微生物胞外电子传递过程中,矿物不同电子能量形式之间既有相似性亦存在着差异。反过来,微生物胞内-胞外电子传递途径也影响对矿物电子能量的吸收与获取,进而对微生物生长代谢等生命活动产生影响。本文在阐述矿物不同电子能量形式产生机制及其参与生物化学反应的共性和差异性特征基础上,综述了微生物获取矿物电子能量所需的不同电子载体类型与传递途径,探讨了矿物不同电子能量形式对微生物生长代谢等生命活动的影响,展望了自然条件下微生物利用矿物电子能量调节其生命活动、调控元素与能量循环的新方式。     

Chromatophore heterogeneity explains phenomena seen in Rhodobacter sphaeroides previously attributed to supercomplexes

It is generally considered that metabolic reactions are well described by homogeneous kinetic models in which the reaction phase is statistically uniform. In membranes, especially in photosynthetic systems where the protein complement is high, it has recently been recognized that effects of local heterogeneity might contribute additional factors that perturb the kinetic behavior, and require more extensive treatment. We show in this paper that statistical heterogeneity in vesicular systems can also contribute to quite marked discrepancies from the behavior expected from standard kinetic and thermodynamic models, for reactions involving free diffusion in the aqueous phase. We explain the kinetic and thermodynamic effects observed in studies of photosynthetic electron transfer in cells and chromatophores from Rhodobacter sphaeroides previously attributed to supercomplexes, in terms of a model based on heterogeneity in distribution of electron transfer components among the chromatophore population. We discuss examples of data inconsistent with the supercomplex model, but well explained by the heterogeneity model.     

Effects of protein-protein interactions on electron transfer: docking and electron transfer calculations for complexes between flavodoxin and c-type cytochromes

 Theoretical studies of protein-protein association and electron transfer were performed on the binary systems formed by Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough (D. v. H.) flavodoxin and D. v. H. cytochrome c ₅₅₃ and by flavodoxin and horse heart cytochrome c. Initial structures for the complexes were obtained by rigid-body docking and were refined by MD to allow for molecular flexibility. The structures thus obtained were analysed in terms of their relative stability through the calculation of excess energies. Electrostatic, van der Waals and solvation energy terms showed all to have significant contributions to the stability of complexes. In the best association solutions found for both cytochromes, these bind to different zones of flavodoxin. The binding site of flavodoxin observed for cytochrome c is in accordance with earlier works [27]. The various association modes found were characterised in terms of electron transfer using the Pathways model. For complexes between flavodoxin and horse heart cytochrome c, some correlation was observed between electron tunnelling coupling factors and conformation energy; the best conformation found for electron transfer corresponded also to the best one in terms of energy. For complexes between flavodoxin and cytochrome c ₅₅₃ this was not the case and a lower correlation was observed between electron tunnelling coupling factors and excess energies. These results are in accordance with the differences in the experimental dependence of electron transfer rates with ionic strength observed between these two cases. Received: 29 December 1998 / Accepted: 22 March 1999     

细菌胞际电子转移及其生态生理学意义研究进展

胞际电子转移是指细胞内电子以间接或直接的方式传递到细胞外,最终到达细胞周围电子受体的过程.胞际电子转移普遍存在于自然界,尤其存在于电子受体相对匮乏的环境中.胞际电子转移可分为间接和直接胞际电子转移.间接胞际电子转移(胞际基质转移)是主要借助氢、甲酸以及其他代谢产物的电子传递;而直接胞际电子转移则由胞内电子转移偶联胞外电子传递实现.胞际电子转移促进了细胞的基质代谢活性,拓展了细胞的作用空间,具有重要的生理意义.胞际电子转移产生了电流,实现了菌间能源共享,驱动了胞外物质(如重金属、腐殖质)转化,具体重大的生态意义.本文总结相关文献,对细菌胞际电子转移的过程、特点、机理及其生态生理学意义作了系统的分析和探讨.     

Pathways,pathway tubes,pathway docking,and propagators in electron transfer proteins

The simplest views of long-range electron transfer utilize flat one-dimensional barrier tunneling models, neglecting structural details of the protein medium. The pathway model of protein electron transfer reintroduces structure by distinguishing between covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals contacts. These three kinds of interactions in a tunneling pathway each have distinctive decay factors associated with them. The distribution and arrangement of these bonded and nonbonded contacts in a folded protein varies tremendously between structures, adding a richness to the tunneling problem that is absent in simpler views. We review the pathway model and the predictions that it makes for protein electron transfer rates in small proteins, docked proteins, and the photosynthetic reactions center. We also review the formulation of the protein electron transfer problem as an effective two-level system. New multi-pathway approaches and improved electronic Hamiltonians are described briefly as well.     

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of electron transfer flavoproteins from human and Paracoccus denitrificans.

Mammalian electron transfer flavoprotein (ETF) is a soluble, heterodimeric flavoprotein responsible for the oxidation of at least nine primary matrix flavoprotein dehydrogenases. Crystals have been obtained for the recombinant human electron transfer flavoprotein (ETFhum) by the sitting-drop vapor diffusion technique using polyethylene glycol (PEG) 1500 at pH 7.0 as the precipitating agent. ETFhum crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2(1), with unit cell parameters a = 47.46 angstrum, b = 104.10 angstrum, c = 63.79 angstrum, and beta = 110.02 degrees. Based on the assumption of one alpha beta dimer per asymmetric unit, the Vm value is 2.69 angstrum 3/Da. A native data set has been collected to 2.1 angstrum resolution. One heavy-atom derivative has also been obtained by soaking a preformed crystal of ETFhum in 2 mM thimerosal solution for 2h at 19 degrees C. Patterson analysis indicates one major site. The analogous electron transfer flavoprotein from Paracoccus denitrificans (ETFpar) has also been crystallized using PEG 8000 at pH 5.5 as the precipitating agent. ETFpar crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit cell parameters a = 79.98 angstrum, b = 182.90 angstrum, and c = 70.07 angstrum. The Vm value of 2.33 angstrum 3/Da is consistent with two alpha beta dimers per asymmetric unit. A native data set has been collected to 2.5 angstrum resolution.     

Interflavin one-electron transfer in the inducible nitric oxide synthase reductase domain and NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase

In this study, we have analyzed interflavin electron transfer reactions from FAD to FMN in both the full-length inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and its reductase domain. Comparison is made with the interflavin electron transfer in NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR). For the analysis of interflavin electron transfer and the flavin intermediates observed during catalysis we have used menadione (MD), which can accept an electron from both the FAD and FMN sites of the enzyme. A characteristic absorption peak at 630 and 520 nm can identify each FAD and FMN semiquinone species, which is derived from CPR and iNOS, respectively. The charge transfer complexes of FAD with NADP+ or NADPH were monitored at 750 nm. In the presence of MD, the air-stable neutral (blue) semiquinone form (FAD-FMNH*) was observed as a major intermediate during the catalytic cycle in both the iNOS reductase domain and full-length enzyme, and its formation occurred without any lag phase indicating rapid interflavin electron transfer following the reduction of FAD by NADPH. These data also strongly suggest that the low level reactivity of a neutral (blue) FMN semiquinone radical with electron acceptors enables one-electron transfer in the catalytic cycle of both the FAD-FMN pairs in CPR and iNOS. On the basis of these data, we propose a common model for the catalytic cycle of both CaM-bound iNOS reductase domain and CPR.     

Simulation of the cavity-binding site of three bacterial multicopper oxidases upon complex stabilization: interactional profile and electron transference pathways

Previous studies have shown that multicopper oxidases (MCOs) oxidize organic and inorganic compounds through oxidation–reduction reactions in which three structurally and functionally arranged copper centers coordinate the uptake of an electron from a reduced substrate. Structural comparisons among three bacterial MCOs, with high structural homology and available three-dimensional information, reveal that the primary structural differences between these MCOs are located near the mononuclear copper center (T1Cu), where substrate oxidation occurs, as opposed to where the reduction of oxygen to water occurs at the trinuclear center. Nevertheless, this substrate oxidation is achieved through an outer-sphere electron transfer mechanism that does not generate a stable substrate–enzyme complex. In this study, MCOs from Thermus thermophilus (Tth-MCO), Bacillus subtilis (CotA), and Escherichia coli (CueO), which have been previously determined through X-ray crystallography, were used as models to analyze the binding modes of these MCOs to three organic molecules, with specific interest in the substrate-binding site. The binding mode of the electron-donor molecule to the electron transfer binding site was primarily attributed to hydrophobic contacts, which likely play an important role in the determination of substrate specificity. Some complexes generated in this study showed an electron donor molecule conformation in which an electron could be directly transferred to the histidines coordinating T1Cu, while for others additional electron transference pathways were also possible through the participation of charged residues during electron transfer.     

Regulation of electron transfer by the quinone pool

Strong evidence for a random collisional mechanism for ubiquinone-mediated electron transfer is provided by the characteristic kinetic properties of respiratory chains originally explored by Kröger, A., and Klingenberg, M. (1973),Eur. J. Biochem. 34, 313–323. A kinetic model which leads to this so-called simple Q-pool behavior has been described and we use this in reviewing evidence that electron transfer is diffusion-controlled as well as diffusion-coupled. We also consider mechanisms by which the kinetics of electron transfer might deviate from simple Q-pool behavior and how these might be implicated in the regulation of electron transport.