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1.
Robert U. Ayres 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1998,2(1):93-115
In the two previous articles in this series we reviewed the major processes of chlorine production (Part I) and its intermediate uses and waste products in the production of other chemicals (Part 11). In this article I consider some of the final applications of chlorine (e.g., for water treatment and pulp bleaching) and the uses of the most important chlorinated compounds such as solvents, chlorofluorocarbons, and the plastic polyvinyl chloride in the industrial economy. I summarize known evidence regarding their environmental fates. The special case of persistent long-lived toxic compounds (e.g., pesticides) will be discussed in a subsequent article. 相似文献
2.
Arnold Tukker René Kleijn Lauran van Oers Edith Smeets 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1997,1(4):93-116
This article describes a method that combines substance flow analysis (SFA) and life-cycle assessment (LCA). It was used to provide a focus in the heated Swedish polyvinylchloride (PVC) debate. For Sweden's PVC chain, all emissions related to PVC were inventoried and translated into LCA-theme scores. The theme scores were compared with total theme scores for all Swedish processes and were benchmarked on the basis of PVC's contribution to Sweden's gross national product (GNP). Mass flows oftwo PVC additives, lead and organotin, were compared with the total use of these metals in Sweden. PVC's contribution to global warming, smog formation, and waste volume was equal to or less than the benchmark. After implementation of planned measures, emissions of the toxic substances dioxins, mercury, and lead will be below the benchmark. We recommend that the Swedish PVC debate concentrate on the uncertainties of the effects of phthalates, small process emissions of persistent chlorinated substances (PBTs), lead and organotin in landfilled PVC, and emissions from PVC in accidental fire 相似文献
3.
Helias Udo de Haes Reinout Heijungs Gjalt Huppes Ester van der Voet Jean-Paul Hettelingh 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》2000,4(1):45-56
Several tools exist for the analysis of the environmental impacts of chains or networks of processes. These relatively simple tools include materials flow accounting (MFA), substance flow analysis (SFA), life-cycle assessment (LCA), energy analysis, and environmentally extended input-output analysis (IOA), all based on fixed input-output relations. They are characterized by the nature of their flow objects, such as products, materials, energy, substances, or money flows, and by their spatial and temporal characteristics. These characteristics are insufficient for their methodological characterization, and sometimes lead to inappropriate use. More clarity is desirable, both for clearer guidance of applications and for a more consistent methodology development. In addition to the nature of the flow object and to spatial and temporal characteristics, another key feature concerns the way in which processes are included in a system to be analyzed.
The inclusion of processes can be done in two fundamentally different ways: according to a full mode of analysis, with the inclusion of all flows and related processes to their full extent as present in a region in a specific period of time; and according to an attribution mode, taking processes into account insofar as these are required for a given social demand, function, or activity, in principle whenever and wherever these processes take place. This distinction, which cuts across families of tools that traditionally belong together, appears to have significant methodological and practical implications. Thus the distinction between the two modes of analysis, however crucial it may be, strengthens the idea of one coherent family of tools for environmental systems analysis. 相似文献
The inclusion of processes can be done in two fundamentally different ways: according to a full mode of analysis, with the inclusion of all flows and related processes to their full extent as present in a region in a specific period of time; and according to an attribution mode, taking processes into account insofar as these are required for a given social demand, function, or activity, in principle whenever and wherever these processes take place. This distinction, which cuts across families of tools that traditionally belong together, appears to have significant methodological and practical implications. Thus the distinction between the two modes of analysis, however crucial it may be, strengthens the idea of one coherent family of tools for environmental systems analysis. 相似文献
4.
J. W. Owens 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1997,1(1):37-49
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for systematically analyzing a product from cradle-to-grave, that is, from resource extraction through manufacture and use to disposal. LCA is a mixed or hybrid analytical system. An inventory phase analyzes system inputs of energy and materials along with outputs of emissions and wastes throughout life cycle, usually as quantitative mass loadings. An impact assessment phase then examines these loadings in light of potential environmental issues using a mixed spectrum of qualitative and quantitative methods. The constraints imposed by inventory's loss of spatial, temporal, dose-response, and threshold information raise concerns about the accuracy of impact assessment. The degree of constraint varies widely according to the environmental issue in question and models used to extrapolate the inventory data. LCA results may have limited value in two areas: (I) local and/ortransient biophysical processes and (2) issues involving biological parameters, such as biodiversity, habitat alteration, and toxicity. The end result is that impact assessment does not measure actual effects or impacts, nor does it calculate the likelihood of an effect or risk Rather, LCA impact assessment results are largely directional environmental indicaton. The accuracy and usefulness of indicators need to be assessed individually and in a circumstance-specific manner prior to decision making. This limits LCAs usefulness as the sole basis for comprehensive assessments and the comparisons of alternatives. In conclusion, LCA may identify potential issues from a systemwide perspective, but more-focused assessments using other analytical techniques are often necessary to resolve the issues. 相似文献
5.
Over the last decade debate among environmental pressure groups, industry, and the authorities overthe threat posed by chlorine has become extremely polarized. In response, the Dutch minister of the environment commissioned a strategic study on chlorine. The first phase of the study described in this article, was designed as a substance flow analysis, encompassing some 99% of the flows of chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHC) in the Netherlands. The study provided an overview of flows of CHC through the Dutch anthroposphere and to inventory the leaks to the environment. Emissions, wastestreams, exports, imports, and flows through the anthroposphere were inventoried, drawing on all possible sources including the Dutch emission registration database, life-cycle assessment (LCA) databases, and industrial data. Emissions were evaluated using the characterization step from LCA methodology. Emissions with toxicological effects were also evaluated on the basis of actual risk assessments of the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM).This resulted in the establishment of six groups of priority segments in the Dutch chlorine chain, for which additional measures will be prepared. The study showed that the environmental groups' pronouncements about the structural dangers associated with the chlorine chain are not supported by current knowledge. The study however; also indicates that important areas of uncertainty require attention, especially relating to the possible emissions of persistent bioaccumulating toxic micropollutants. 相似文献
6.
7.
Ina Rüdenauer Carl‐Otto Gensch Rainer Grießhammer Dirk Bunke 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》2005,9(4):105-116
The eco-efficiency analysis method developed and used by the Öko-Institut analyzes different alternatives that fulfill a defined consumer need, from an environmental as well as an economic perspective.
Like life-cycle assessment (LCA), eco-efficiency analysis makes possible the setting of priorities in purchasing decisions or can be used to show optimization potentials in product development processes.
Eco-efficiency analysis builds upon two methods: LCA, according to ISO 14040 ff. (to assess the environmental aspects of products and processes), and life-cycle costing. Life-cycle costing results in a single figure—the total costs of ownership to one or several actors. The environmental impacts can be evaluated and aggregated as a single score or the impact category indicator results can be kept separate. In either case two single scores can be compared: the total environmental burden or the impact category indicator results, and the total costs of ownership of the alternatives under consideration.
The results can then be plotted in two-dimensional graphs that show the effectiveness of certain measures in environmental and economic terms. The efficiency is expressed as a numerical ratio of environmental savings to difference in costs.
Together with furnishing more detailed results and a discussion of additional benefits or potential barriers, eco-efficiency analysis broadens the basis for decision-making processes. 相似文献
Like life-cycle assessment (LCA), eco-efficiency analysis makes possible the setting of priorities in purchasing decisions or can be used to show optimization potentials in product development processes.
Eco-efficiency analysis builds upon two methods: LCA, according to ISO 14040 ff. (to assess the environmental aspects of products and processes), and life-cycle costing. Life-cycle costing results in a single figure—the total costs of ownership to one or several actors. The environmental impacts can be evaluated and aggregated as a single score or the impact category indicator results can be kept separate. In either case two single scores can be compared: the total environmental burden or the impact category indicator results, and the total costs of ownership of the alternatives under consideration.
The results can then be plotted in two-dimensional graphs that show the effectiveness of certain measures in environmental and economic terms. The efficiency is expressed as a numerical ratio of environmental savings to difference in costs.
Together with furnishing more detailed results and a discussion of additional benefits or potential barriers, eco-efficiency analysis broadens the basis for decision-making processes. 相似文献
8.
9.
主要分析了我国生命周期评价的理论与实践研究进展与数据库构建现状,针对当前我国生命周期评价理论与应用研究的关键薄弱环节即不确定性分析、本土化数据库构建、本土化生命周期环境影响评价模型构建,指出了利用泰勒系列展开模型进行符合我国产业链生产现状的精确、完整、具有代表性、具有时空动态特征的生命周期数据库构建的必要性;并指出需要根据我国国情(例如:环境、地理、人口、暴露等)来构建生命周期环境影响评价模型的紧迫性。 相似文献
10.
Robert Ayers 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1997,1(1):81-94
Chlorine is an important industrial chemical. Not only is it a component of many important products, it is also needed for many chemical manufacturing processes, even where it does not appear in the final product. But a number of chlorine chemicals, especially organochlorines, are toxic, carcinogenic, tentogenic or otherwise potentially disturbing to the environment. For this reason, some environmentalists—notably Greenpeace-have advocated a ban, not just on some products but on all uses of elemental chlorine. The chemical industry is taking this threat seriously and mounting a vigorous defense. But the debate so far is not illuminating the issues effectively, because both sides are selectively using questionable and unverifiable data.
The scientific uncertainties are not really the problem. Rather, data in the public domain and accessible to environmentalists and even regulatory authorities are of very poor qualrty. Because of industry secrecy much crucial inforrnation is unavailable and some of what is available is misleading or wrong. The dual purposes of this article, and the ones that follow, are (I) to elucidate the information requirements for an adequate life-cycle analysis of chlorine and its uses and (2) to indicate how and where the use of massbalance methodology can help identify errors and fill in gaps.
The present article deals with electrolytic chlorine produdion and mercury flows arising from chlorine production. Subsequent articles deal with conversion processes and losses and further chemical industry uses of chlorine, major end uses of chlorine and chlorine chemicals, and persistent organochlorine pollutants. 相似文献
The scientific uncertainties are not really the problem. Rather, data in the public domain and accessible to environmentalists and even regulatory authorities are of very poor qualrty. Because of industry secrecy much crucial inforrnation is unavailable and some of what is available is misleading or wrong. The dual purposes of this article, and the ones that follow, are (I) to elucidate the information requirements for an adequate life-cycle analysis of chlorine and its uses and (2) to indicate how and where the use of massbalance methodology can help identify errors and fill in gaps.
The present article deals with electrolytic chlorine produdion and mercury flows arising from chlorine production. Subsequent articles deal with conversion processes and losses and further chemical industry uses of chlorine, major end uses of chlorine and chlorine chemicals, and persistent organochlorine pollutants. 相似文献
11.
The presence of value judgments in life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) has been a constant source of controversy. According to a common interpretation, the international standard on LCIA requires that the assessment methods used in published comparisons be \"value free.\" Epistemologists argue that even natural science rests on \"constitutive\" and \"contextual\" value judgments. The example of the equivalency potential for climate change, the global warming potential (GWP), demonstrates that any impact assessment method inevitably contains not only constitutive and contextual values, but also preference values. Hence, neither life-cycle assessment (LCA) as a whole nor any of its steps can be \"value free.\" As a result, we suggest a more comprehensive definition of objectivity in LCA that allows arguments about values and their relationship to facts. We distinguish three types of truth claims: factual claims, which are based on natural science; normative claims, which refer to preference values; and relational claims, which address the proper relation between factual knowledge and values. Every assessment method, even the GWP, requires each type of claim. Rational arguments can be made about each type of claim. Factual truth claims can be assessed using the scientific method. Normative claims can be based on ethical arguments. The values of individuals or groups can be elicited using various social science methods. Relational claims must follow the rules of logic. Relational claims are most important for the development of impact assessment methods. Because LCAs are conducted to satisfy the need of decision makers to consider environmental impacts, relational claims about impact assessment methods should refer to this goal. This article introduces conditions that affect environmental decision making and discusses how LCA—values and all—can be defended as a rational response to the challenge of moving uncertain scientific information into the policy arena. 相似文献
12.
Abstract: This article analyzes the possibilities for reducing carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions in the life cycle of Japanese petrochemicals, focusing primarily on the nonenergy use of fossil fuels. For this purpose a linear programming model called CHEAP (CHemical industry Environmental strategy Analysis Program) has been developed. The results show a moderate autonomous growth of emissions by 5% in the period 2000 to 2020, if it is assumed that no new technology is introduced and demand (measured in physical units) increases 1% per year, on average. However, if it is assumed that ongoing technology development succeeds, emissions in 2020 may decrease by 5% from 2000 levels (a decrease of 10% compared to the case that assumes no new technology). This is a significant contribution to emission reduction. According to this model, a further emission reduction by 10% in 2020 is possible but costly as it requires emission reduction incentives of up to 10,000 yen per ton CO2 (approximately 100 US/ton). The use of biomass feed-stocks, waste recycling, energy recovery from waste and gas-based co-generation are the main strategies for achieving this emission reduction. 相似文献
13.
Devdatt Kurdikar Laurence Fournet Steven C. Slater Mark Paster Kenneth J. Gruys Tillman U. Gerngross Remi Coulon 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》2000,4(3):107-122
Abstract: This article reports an assessment of the global warming potential associated with the life cycle of a biopolymer (poly(hydroxyalkanoate) or PHA) produced in genetically engineered corn developed by Monsanto. The grain corn is harvested in a conventional manner, and the polymer is extracted from the corn stover (i.e., residues such as stalks, leaves and cobs), which would be otherwise left on the field. While corn farming was assessed based on current practice, four different hypothetical PHA production scenarios were tested for the extraction process. Each scenario differed in the energy source used for polymer extraction and compounding, and the results were compared to polyethylene (PE). The first scenario involved burning of the residual biomass (primarily cellulose) remaining after the polymer was extracted from the stover. In the three other scenarios, the use of conventional energy sources of coal, oil, and natural gas were investigated. This study indicates that an integrated system, wherein biomass energy from corn stover provides energy for polymer processing, would result in a better greenhouse gas profile for PHA than for PE. However, plant-based PHA production using fossil fuel sources provides no greenhouse gas advantage over PE, in fact scoring worse than PE. These results are based on a \"cradle-to-pellet\" modeling as the PHA end-of-life was not quantitatively studied due to complex issues surrounding the actual fate of postconsumer PHA. 相似文献
14.
John R. Ehrenfeld 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1997,1(2):41-49
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a new method for exploring the environmental implications of human action. Like all methods, it is analytically limited and consequently it must be used with caution. Recent papers have criticized LCA and caution against its use in all but a few narrow applications. Even while accepting many of these arguments, this article argues that LCAs, like other analytic frameworks used in the policy and planning domains, have important uses in shaping the processes by which both products and policies are designed. The arguments made against the use of LCAs omit comparisons to realistic appraisals of alternative and competing methods of environmental assessment. 相似文献
15.
Fluorine is an essential element to human health and to the chemical industry. In spite of our dependence on fluorine and fluorine compounds, we have yet to learn to use them wisely. Our fluorine history, which spans about a hundred years, has had negative effects such as hydrofluoric acid pollution caused by aluminum smelters and ozone depletion due to chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions. More recent concerns center on greenhouse effects from CFCs, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). In this article we note also that fluorine is a nonrenewable resource that is nonsubstitutable for many purposes. This article tracks fluorine from sources through conversion processes to end uses, most of which are dissipative. We present a stock‐flow model of the fluorine system. Based on this model we consider some possible measures that could be taken to increase the degree of recovery. To mention one example, a large percentage of the world demand for fluorspar could be supplied by the phosphate rock (fertilizer) industry, which currently dissipates a great deal of recoverable fluorine in waste phospho‐gypsum. 相似文献
16.
José Potting Wolfgang Schöpp Kornelis Blok Michael Hauschild 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1998,2(2):63-87
The lack of spatial differentiation in current life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) affects the relevance of the assessed impact. This article first describes a framework for constructing factors relating the region of emission to the acidifying impact on its deposition areas. Next, these factors are established for 44 European regions with the help of the RAINS model, an integrated assessment model that combines information on regional emission levels with information on long-range atmospheric transport to estimate patterns of deposition and concentration for comparison with critical loads and thresholds for acidification, eutrophication via air; and tropospheric ozone formation. The application of the acidification factors in LCIA is very straightforward. The only additional data required, the geographical site of the emission, is generally provided by current life-cycle inventory analysis. The acidification factors add resolving power of a factor of 1,000 difference between the highest and lowest ratings, while the combined uncertainties in the RAINS model are canceled out to a large extent in the acidification factors as a result of the large number of ecosystems they cover The framework presented is also suitable for establishing similar factors for eutrophication and tropospheric ozone formation for regions outside Europe as well. 相似文献
17.
Anna Björklund Charlotte Bjuggren Magnus Dalemo Ulf Sonesson 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》1999,3(4):43-58
The environmental impact of the management of biodegradable waste in Stockholm, based mainly on incineration and landfilling, was compared to systems with significant nutrient recycling; large-scale composting, anaerobic digestion, and separate collection and utilization of urine. The systems' emissions, residual products, energy turnover, and resource consumption were evaluated from a life-cycle perspective, using a computerized model, ORWARE (ORganic WAste REsearch model).
Transportation was of relatively low importance to overall environmental impact, even at high rates of nutrient recycling. This is remarkable considering the geographical setting of Stockholm, with high population density and little nearby farmland. Ancillary systems, such as generation of electricity and district heating, were crucial for the overall outcome.
Increased recycling of nutrients in solid biodegradable waste in Stockholm can reduce net environmental impact, whereas separation of human urine to be spread as fertilizer cannot yet be introduced without increased acidification. Increased nutrient recycling from solid biodegradable waste inevitably increases spreading of metals on arable land. Urine is by far the least contaminated residual product. Spreading of all other residuals would be limited by their metal content. 相似文献
Transportation was of relatively low importance to overall environmental impact, even at high rates of nutrient recycling. This is remarkable considering the geographical setting of Stockholm, with high population density and little nearby farmland. Ancillary systems, such as generation of electricity and district heating, were crucial for the overall outcome.
Increased recycling of nutrients in solid biodegradable waste in Stockholm can reduce net environmental impact, whereas separation of human urine to be spread as fertilizer cannot yet be introduced without increased acidification. Increased nutrient recycling from solid biodegradable waste inevitably increases spreading of metals on arable land. Urine is by far the least contaminated residual product. Spreading of all other residuals would be limited by their metal content. 相似文献
18.
Mark A. J. Huijbregts Wolfgang Schöpp Evert Verkuijlen Reinout Heijungs Lucas Reijnders 《Journal of Industrial Ecology》2000,4(3):75-92
Abstract: Simple models are often used to assess the potential impact of acidifying and eutrophying substances released during the life cycle of products. As fate, background depositions, and ecosystem sensitivity are not included in these models, environmental life-cycle assessment of products (LCA) may produce incorrect results for these impact categories. This paper outlines the spatially explicit regional air pollution information and simulation model (RAINSLCA), which was developed for the calculation of acidification and terrestrial eutrophication potentials of ammonia (NH3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) air emissions and acidification potentials for sulfur dioxide (SO2) air emissions for Europe and a number of European regions, taking fate, 相似文献
19.
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for evaluating various health and environmental impacts throughout a product's life. When used as a screening tool, LCA can potentially identify the processes and materials most likely to pose a threat to human health and the environment, and to determine where a risk assessment is warranted. The European Union has issued a ban on lead-based solder from use in electronic equipment beginning in July 2006. In response, the Lead-Free Solder Partnership, involving the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, several electronics manufacturers, and the University of Tennessee afforded a vehicle for conducting a thorough LCA of leaded and lead-free solders used in the electronics industry. Sixteen impact categories were evaluated in the LCA, including human toxicity.
A primary conclusion of the assessment for human and aquatic toxicity, across the entire life cycle of tin-lead solder, was the potential for impacts derived from the landfilling of lead. These results, based on broad assumptions about exposure, suggest that a more detailed risk assessment of the landfilling process would assist in better understanding the potential for health and environmental risks. We believe LCA data can be used to identify the need for focused risk assessments, allowing the two tools to effectively complement one another. Use of both methods could assist in understanding the effectiveness of the European ban on lead solder and its potential to improve public health. 相似文献
20.
《Journal of Industrial Ecology》2002,6(3-4):79-101
The tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts (TRACI) is a set of life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) characterization methods that has been developed by a series of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency research projects. TRACI facilitates the characterization of stressors that may have potential effects, including ozone depletion, global warming, acidification, eutrophication, tropospheric ozone (smog) formation, eco-toxicity, human particulate effects, human carcinogenic effects, human non-carcinogenic effects, fossil fuel depletion, and land-use effects. This article describes the methodologies developed to address acidification, eutrophication, and smog. Each of these methods offers the ability to take account of differences in expected strength of impact as a function of pollution release location within North America. Specifically, the methods employ regionalized fate and transport modeling. The resulting factors differ regionally by up to more than an order of magnitude. 相似文献