Charcoal Consumption by Zanzibar Red Colobus Monkeys: Its Function and Its Ecological and Demographic Consequences

The Zanzibar red colobus monkey is the only primate, aside from humans, known to eat charcoal in the wild. All age classes and both sexes eat charcoal, but only those groups living in perennial gardens or near human dwellings do so. The habit appears to be transmitted from mother to offspring by imitation, but how it developed in the first place is unknown. Sources of charcoal include charred stumps, logs, and branches, as well as that produced in kilns by humans. These charcoals adsorb organic materials, such as phenolics, particularly well and, as a consequence, remove these compounds, which have the potential to be toxic or interfere with digestion or both. The extreme inertness of charcoal makes it an unlikely source of minerals to the colobus. We conclude that, by eating charcoal, monkeys living in gardens with a high density of food species dominated by exotic trees — Indian almond and mango — are able to exploit this abundant food resource that is high in total phenolic content much more effectively than in the absence of charcoal. The young leaves of these exotic tree species are also very high in protein and highly digestible. The benefits of charcoal eating are most likely due to the fact that charcoal adsorbs phenolics better than proteins. This may explain in large part why the birth rates and population densities of the colobus living in the Indian almond and mango habitat adjacent to the Jozani Forest are significantly higher than those in the ground-water forest. The population density of colobus in this small area is the highest ever recorded for a nonhuman anthropoid (700/km ² ). It may not, however, be a stable situation, as there are indications of higher levels of aggression, lower recruitment into the medium-juvenile size class, and overbrowsing.     

Micropropagation of Cypripedium flavum through multiple shoots of seedlings derived from mature seeds

Cypripedium flavum, known as the rare lady’s slipper orchid, is one of the endemics with a yellow flower in China. Due to its conservation and commercial requirement, establishment of an efficient method for micropropogation is urgently needed. Multiple shoots were obtained by placing seedlings from seeds of C. flavum on Harvais media supplemented with two cytokinins (BAP or KIN) used alone or in addition to different concentration of potato homogenate. The effect of BAP was better than that of KIN on shoot multiplication. The Havais media supplemented with BAP (2.22 μM) and potato homogenate (20 g l⁻¹) was the most effective, providing high shoot multiplication frequencies (95%) associated with a high number of shoots per explant (2.55 shoots/plant). For root formation, high rooting and survival were achieved using 1/2 Harvais media supplemented with 0.6 g l⁻¹activated charcoals. High-level activated charcoal increased the number and the length of roots because the activated charcoal could absorb BAP in the media. This study demonstrated that C. flavum could be micropropagated by using multiple shoots of seedlings derived from mature seeds.     

火烧迹地木炭对兴安落叶松种子萌发的影响

通过对大兴安岭兴安落叶松火烧迹地木炭的野外调查和取样,分别选取不同来源（兴安落叶松,白桦,灌木,草本）的木炭,以及不同火烧时间（当年,1年,4年,5年）的木炭,研究不同种类木炭浸提液,以及相同种类不同火烧时间木炭浸提液对兴安落叶松种子萌发的影响。研究结果发现,不同来源、不同时间的木炭对兴安落叶松种子的萌发均有显著性的影响,但作用力的方向和大小也各不相同,这说明木炭对种子萌发的影响因素非常复杂。     

Nature of the Interference Mechanism of Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) Straw

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) straw left in the field after harvest interferes with the growth of winter and summer weeds. In the last years, there was a progressive move away from burning sugarcane straw to retaining it on the soil surface after harvest to prevent soil degradation and environmental pollution. Water-soluble phenolics leachated from straw into soil may suppress weed growth. A study was carried out to investigate (1) the effect of biotic (unautoclaved) soil treated with burned and unburned sugarcane straw leachates on seedling growth and foliar proline content of beggarticks (Bidens subalternans L.) and wild mustard (Brassica campestris L.), (2) the modification of sugarcane straw phytotoxicity in abiotic (autoclaved) soil and biotic (unautoclaved) soil plus activated charcoal, and (3) changes of inorganic ions and phenolic contents in biotic soil after treatment with burned and unburned sugarcane straw leachate. Unburned straw leachate significantly inhibited root elongation of 7-d-old beggarticks and wild mustard seedlings. Burned straw leachate did not affect seedling growth of the assayed weeds suggesting that organic straw phytotoxins were involved. Experiments with activated charcoal, however, did not provide clear evidence supporting the involve of organic molecules in straw phytotoxicity. Unburned straw leachate incorporated in biotic soil was more inhibitory than in abiotic soil on root growth suggesting that microbial activity is involved in sugarcane straw interference. There was no evidence of nutrient microbial immobilization. Unburned sugarcane straw leachate increased total phenolic content in biotic soil more than in abiotic soil or biotic soil plus charcoal. Burned sugarcane straw leachate did not increase phenolic compounds levels in biotic soil. Linear regression analysis indicated a strong correlation between levels of soil phenolic contents and root growth inhibition. Soil characteristics evaluated in soil treated with burned and unburned sugarcane straw leachate suggest that straw phytotoxicity is related with organic molecules, such as phenolic compounds, rather than to variations in inorganic nutrients. Unburned straw leachate induced proline accumulation in seedling leaves of both beggarticks and wild mustard. Proline foliar content was higher in seedlings grown in biotic soil than in seedlings grown in biotic soil plus charcoal suggesting that straw organic constituents induced proline accumulation. Proline foliar content of seedlings grown in biotic soil treated with burned straw leachate was not significantly different from water control. The present study showed that sugarcane straw leachate interferes with seedling growth of beggarticks and wild mustard and that water-soluble phenolics can play a role in the seedling growth inhibition of the assayed weeds.     

Phylogenetic placement and population structure of Indo‐Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) off Zanzibar,Tanzania, based on mtDNA sequences

Phylogenetic placement of bottlenose dolphins from Zanzibar, East Africa and putative population differentiation between animals found off southern and northern Zanzibar were examined using variation in mtDNA control region sequences. Samples (n= 45) from animals bycaught in fishing gear and skin biopsies collected during boat surveys were compared to published sequences (n= 173) of Indo‐Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus, from southeast Australian waters, Chinese/Indonesian waters, and South African waters (which recently was proposed as a new species) and to published sequences of common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus. Bayesian and maximum parsimony analyses indicated a close relationship between Zanzibar and South African haplotypes, which are differentiated from both Chinese/Indonesian and Australian T. aduncus haplotypes. Our results suggest that the dolphins found off Zanzibar should be classified as T. aduncus alongside the South African animals. Further, analyses of genetic differentiation showed significant separation between the T. aduncus found off northern and southern Zanzibar despite the relatively short distance (approximately 80 km) between these areas. Much less differentiation was found between southern Zanzibar and South Africa, suggesting a more recent common evolutionary history for these populations than for the northern and southern Zanzibar populations.     

Long‐term effect of biochar on the stabilization of recent carbon: soils with historical inputs of charcoal

This study was set up to identify the long‐term effect of biochar on soil C sequestration of recent carbon inputs. Arable fields (n = 5) were found in Belgium with charcoal‐enriched black spots (>50 m²; n = 14) dating >150 years ago from historical charcoal production mound kilns. Topsoils from these ‘black spots’ had a higher organic C concentration [3.6 ± 0.9% organic carbon (OC)] than adjacent soils outside these black spots (2.1 ± 0.2% OC). The soils had been cropped with maize for at least 12 years which provided a continuous input of C with a C isotope signature (δ¹³C) ?13.1, distinct from the δ¹³C of soil organic carbon (?27.4 ‰) and charcoal (?25.7 ‰) collected in the surrounding area. The isotope signatures in the soil revealed that maize‐derived C concentration was significantly higher in charcoal‐amended samples (‘black spots’) than in adjacent unamended ones (0.44% vs. 0.31%; P = 0.02). Topsoils were subsequently collected as a gradient across two ‘black spots’ along with corresponding adjacent soils outside these black spots and soil respiration, and physical soil fractionation was conducted. Total soil respiration (130 days) was unaffected by charcoal, but the maize‐derived C respiration per unit maize‐derived OC in soil significantly decreased about half (P < 0.02) with increasing charcoal‐derived C in soil. Maize‐derived C was proportionally present more in protected soil aggregates in the presence of charcoal. The lower specific mineralization and increased C sequestration of recent C with charcoal are attributed to a combination of physical protection, C saturation of microbial communities and, potentially, slightly higher annual primary production. Overall, this study provides evidence of the capacity of biochar to enhance C sequestration in soils through reduced C turnover on the long term.     

Age and Physiological Condition of Donor Plants Affect in vitro Morphogenesis in Leaf Explants of Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa

The regeneration potential of D.alata L. germplasm preserved in vitro was compared with the micropropagation of fresh material. Nodal cuttings were conserved for 9 months in different treatments based on D-571 culture medium modified, using several variable components (mannitol, benzylaminopurine and activated charcoal). Regeneration at 8 weeks, assessed by means of percentage of explant regenerating and the multiplication at 5 weeks through the shoot length and de novo bud count formation per explant were determined. The results showed high rates (100 and 98%) of explant regeneration and micropropagation from in vitro material maintained in D-571 medium with 1.5% of mannitol + 0.1 or 1 mg l^–1 of benzylaminopurine + 2 g l^–1 of activated charcoal, respectively.     

Factors controlling adventitious bud induction and plant regeneration in matureJuniperus oxycedrus leaves cultured in vitro

Summary The morphogenetic capacity of matureJuniperus oxycedrus L. leaves cultured in vitro has been studied, noting nutritive, hormonal, and environmental factors inducing differentiation and development of adventitious shoots. Bud primordia formed directly from the leaves. Highest bud differentiation rates were obtained when the explants were cultured for at least 21 days on a modified Schenk and Hildebrandt solidified medium containing 0.5 μM benzyladenine under a 16-h photoperiod. Maximum bud development and elongation was achieved on cytokinin-free medium containing 4% (wt/vol) sucrose and 0.05% (wt/vol) activated charcoal. Regenerated shoots were excised and induced to root on media with auxin. Rooting percentages up to 100% were obtained in the presence of 2.5 μM naphthaleneacetic acid and 4% (wt/vol) sucrose. The inclusion of activated charcoal in the root induction medium drastically reduced the number of rooted shoots. Following conventional procedures, plantlets were ultimately established in soil.     

Cytokinins,auxins and activated charcoal affect organogenesis and anatomical characteristics of shoot-tip cultures of lisianthus [<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eustoma grandiflorum</Emphasis> (RAF.) Shinn]

Summary Variants from seed-propagated Lisianthus [Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn] were shoot-tip cultured to observe the effects of cytokinins, auxins and activated charcoal on organogenesis and anatomical characteristics. N⁶-Benzyladenine (BA) and kinetin at high concentrations (13.32–22.2 and 13.94–23.23 μM) resulted in good shoot formation but high percentages of hyperhydric shoots. Increased indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) concentrations favored root formation, while increased naphthaleneacetic acid concentration adversely affected root formation. Both shoot and root development were suppressed by activated charcoal. The highest percentage of regeneration and the largest number of glaucous shoots with an average of 15 shoots per explant after 4 wk of culture were obtained when the shoot tips were cultured on MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) medium supplemented with 4.44 μM BA and 1.47–4.92 μMIAA and IBA. In vitro-grown leaves had a higher number of stomata than field-grown leaves but the length and diameter of stomata showed no significant difference between the two types. Field-grown leaves had well-developed epicuticular wax layers. which were not observed on hyperhydric leaves. Hyperthydric plantlets could not survive when transplanted to soil, whereas glaucous plantlets survived in more than 80% of cases. Variation in soil type resulted in a slight difference in plantlet survival. Based on the results of our experiment, this protocol should be useful for the rapid micropropagation of lisianthus.     

Deciphering patterns of transoceanic dispersal: the evolutionary origin and biogeography of coastal lizards (Cryptoblepharus) in the Western Indian Ocean region

Aim Cryptoblepharus is a genus of small arboreal or rock‐dwelling scincid lizards, widespread through the Indo‐Pacific and Australian regions, with a disjunct outlier in the Malagasy region. The taxonomy within this genus is controversial, with different authors ranking the different forms (now some 36) at various levels, from different species to subspecies of a single species, Cryptoblepharus boutonii. We investigated the biogeography and genetic differentiation of the Cryptoblepharus from the Western Indian Ocean region, in order to understand their origin and history. Location Western Indian Ocean region. Methods We analysed sequences of mitochondrial DNA (partial 12s and 16s rRNA genes, 766 bp) from 48 specimens collected in Madagascar, Mauritius, the four Comoros islands and East Africa, and also in New Caledonia, representing the Australo‐Pacific unit of the distribution. Results Pairwise sequence divergences of c. 3.1% were found between the New Caledonian forms and the ones from the Western Indian Ocean. Two clades were identified in Madagascar, probably corresponding to the recognized forms cognatus and voeltzkowi, and two clades were identified in the Comoro islands, where each island population formed a distinct haplotype clade. The East African samples form a monophyletic unit, with some variation existing between Pemba, Zanzibar and continental Tanzania populations. Individuals from Mauritius form a divergent group, more related to populations from Moheli and Grand Comore (Comoros islands) than to the others. Main conclusions The level of divergence between the populations from the Western Indian Ocean and Australian regions and the geographic coherence of the variation within the Western Indian Ocean group are concordant with the hypothesis of a colonization of this region by a natural transoceanic dispersal (from Australia or Indonesia). The group then may have diversified in Madagascar, from where it separately colonized the East African coast, the Comoros islands (twice), and Mauritius. The genetic divergence found is congruent with the known morphological variation, but its degree is much lower than typically seen between distinct species of reptiles.     

Plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplasts of lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) by adding activated charcoal into protoplast culture medium

Plant regeneration from isolated protoplasts of 8 cultivars of lisianthus, Eustoma grandiflorum (Griseb.) Schinners, has been established by using activated charcoal. Protoplasts were isolated from lisianthus leaves grown in vitro and started to divide within 3–4 days of culture, but successful colony formation was only achieved by adding gellan gum blocks containing 1% (w/v) activated charcoal immediately after culture. Colonies consisting of as many as 50–100 cells formed after 30 days of culture and were transferred to fresh medium for callus proliferation and shoot regeneration, respectively. These shoots rooted on MS medium containing 0.5 mg l^–1 indolebutyric acid(IBA) and the plantlets were finally transplanted to pots. Morphological characteristics, growth habit and pollen fertility of protoplast-derived plants of one cultivar were not different from those of seed-grown plants as control.Abbreviations BA 6-benzylaminopurine - NAA 1-naphthaleneacetic acid - MS Murashige & Skoog (1962) medium - IBA indolebutyric acid - MES 2-N-morpholinoethane sulfonic acid     

芒果SEPALAATA基因的克隆与表达分析

以芒果品种‘吕宋’(Mangifera indica L.Carabao)为试材,利用同源克隆和RACE技术从花序中获得了1个芒果SEPALAATA(SEP)基因cDNA全长,命名为MSEP1(GenBank中登录号为KP702299)。MSEP1基因的cDNA全长为921bp,包含一个长度为726bp开放阅读框,编码241个氨基酸,蛋白质相对分子质量为27.7kD,理论等电点为5.79。序列比对和系统进化树分析表明,MSEP1具有保守的MADS-box及半保守的K区,属于MADS-box家族的SEP亚家族。器官特异性表达分析表明,MSEP1基因在芒果根、茎中表达量较低,在叶片、花芽中表达量较高,而在花序中表达量最高。研究推测,MSEP1基因可能在芒果生殖生长中发挥重要作用。     

Firewood management and woodland exploitation during the late Neolithic at Lac de Chalain (Jura,France)

The paper presents results of the charcoal analysis from the lakeshore settlement of Chalain 4 in the French Jura (Dép. Franche-Comté), dated by dendrochronology from 3040 to 3000 bc. The investigated material comes from waterlogged organic layers (excluding fire events) where charcoals are assumed to be the residues of domestic fires only. The anthracological (charcoal) analysis reveals a complex domestic firewood management in balance with the social organisation and the technical and economic systems of the settlement. This firewood economy is characterised by the avoidance of wood species intended for other activities, such as building or foddering, and by the preferential use of wood less than 10 cm in diameter. The areas from which firewood was obtained are also connected to woodland clearance for cultivated land, which suggests that firewood was gathered along the paths, which were travelled daily.     

芒果MSOC1基因的克隆与表达分析

MADS-box转录因子在多种植物的发育过程、特别是花器官的发育过程中发挥着重要的作用。为研究MADS-box转录因子在芒果花器官发育中的作用,利用RT-PCR和RACE技术分离到1个芒果的SOC1基因,命名为MSOC1(GenBank登录号为KP404094)。MSOC1编码区为733bp,编码223个氨基酸,蛋白质相对分子质量为25.6kD,理论等电点为8.96。序列比对和系统进化树分析表明,MSOC1具有保守的MADS-box及半保守的K区,属于MADS-box家族SOC1/TM3亚家族。组织特异性表达分析表明,MSOC1基因在芒果各个组织部位均有表达,但在茎、叶和花芽中表达量高,而在根和花中表达量低。     

Adsorption of volatile organic compounds by pecan shell- and almond shell-based granular activated carbons

The objective of this research was to determine the effectiveness of using pecan and almond shell-based granular activated carbons (GACs) in the adsorption of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of health concern and known toxic compounds (such as bromo-dichloromethane, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloromethane, chloroform, and 1,1-dichloromethane) compared to the adsorption efficiency of commercially used carbons (such as Filtrasorb 200, Calgon GRC-20, and Waterlinks 206C AW) in simulated test medium. The pecan shell-based GACs were activated using steam, carbon dioxide or phosphoric acid. An almond shell-based GAC was activated with phosphoric acid. Our results indicated that steam- or carbon dioxide-activated pecan shell carbons were superior in total VOC adsorption to phosphoric acid-activated pecan shell or almond shell carbons, inferring that the method of activation selected for the preparation of activated carbons affected the adsorption of VOCs and hence are factors to be considered in any adsorption process. The steam-activated, pecan shell carbon adsorbed more total VOCs than the other experimental carbons and had an adsorption profile similar to the two coconut shell-based commercial carbons, but had greater adsorption than the coal-based commercial carbon. All the carbons studied adsorbed benzene more effectively than the other organics. Pecan shell, steam-activated and acid-activated GACs showed higher adsorption of 1,1,1-trichloroethane than the other carbons studied. Multivariate analysis was conducted to group experimental carbons and commercial carbons based on their physical, chemical, and adsorptive properties. The results of the analysis conclude that steam-activated and acid-activated pecan shell carbons clustered together with coal-based and coconut shell-based commercial carbons, thus inferring that these experimental carbons could potentially be used as alternative sources for VOC adsorption in an aqueous environment.     

Plant cell factories as a source for anti-cancer lignans

The review places podophyllotoxin, a powerful anti-cancer material used in clinical treatment of small cell cancers, in focus. The economical synthesis of podophyllotoxin is not feasible and demand for this material outstrips supply. At present, Podophyllum hexandrum (Indian May apple) is the commercial source but it grows in an inhospitable region (the Himalayas) where it is collected from wild stands. Furthermore, the plant is now an endangered species. Alternative sources of podophyllotoxin are considered, e.g., the supply of podophyllotoxin and related lignans by establishing plant cell cultures that can be grown in fermentation vessels. Increase of product yields, by variation of medium and culture conditions or by varying the channelling of precursors into side-branches of the biosynthetic pathway by molecular approaches, are discussed.     

In vitro propagation of Vicia faba L. by micro-cutting and multiple shoot induction

The influences of nitrogen sources, culture temperature and activated charcoal supplements were studied in relation to the rooting ability of V. faba cuttings. The interaction of these factors led to quantitative and qualitative modifications of the culture responses. Low temperatures (14–18°C) were suitable for in vitro culture, limiting the formation of phenolics in plant material and making activated charcoal supplement unnecessary. Nitrogen supplements contributed in modifying the different plant responses, in accordance with temperature. Multiple shoot formation was obtained from the cotyledonary node and from the stem nodes cultivated in the presence of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP). BAP at 4 mg l^-1 was the most effective concentration in promoting high rates of shoot development. The original position of stem nodes was found to determine the explant response to plant growth regulator treatments, possibly due to the effect of residual apical dominance.     

Assessment of genetic diversity and population structure of Chinese wild almond, Amygdalus nana, using EST- and genomic SSRs

Amygdalus nana L., commonly known as wild almond, is an endangered wild relative of cultivated almond, which has great potential in almond crop breeding. In this study, we used microsatellite (SSR) loci derived from both expressed sequence tag (EST) and anonymous genomic sequence to explore the genetic diversity and population structure of A. nana in Xinjiang of China. Seven natural populations were collected across the whole distribution of A. nana in China, including populations from both inside (four populations) and outside (three populations) the established protected areas. A total of 22 and 19 alleles were detected from the seven pairs of EST and genomic SSR loci, respectively. Generally, the genomic SSRs showed lower levels of variation than EST-SSRs, which may partially due to the higher cross-species transferability in EST-SSRs than in genomic SSRs. The population-level genetic diversity (A = 1.84, P = 50.00%, H_o = 0.3491, H_E = 0.2271) was lower than cultivated almond and several wild fruit species with similar breeding system. Most of the genetic variation (82.16%) was partitioned within populations. In particular, the population collected from Tacheng County (outside the protected areas) had the highest levels of genetic diversity and had significantly different genetic constitution from other populations.     

Charcoal and activated carbon as adsorbate of phytotoxic compounds – a comparative study

This study compares the potential of natural charcoal from Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) and activated carbon to improve germination under the hypothesis that natural charcoal adsorbs phytotoxins produced by dwarf-shrubs, but due to it's chemical properties to a lesser extent than activated carbon. Activated carbon has been used in many bioassays as an adsorbate to clean aqueous solutions.
We used aqueous extracts from young leaves of Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull and Vaccinium myrtillus (L.) as phytotoxin sources in two different concentrations (10 and 14 gr. of dried leaves in 100 ml distilled water). Germination of pine seeds was prevented by the higher concentration of both species, while the lower ones did not show significantly reduced germination. Both ericaceous species showed a very similar potential to prevent germination of Scots pine seeds.
Supplemented carbon (activated carbon, powdered or granulated pine charcoal) restored germination in strong extracts. Adding activated carbon resulted in germination of almost 100%. With pine charcoals added, lower germination percentages were observed. The charcoal powder was more effective (60% for C. vulgaris ; 28% for V. myrtillus ) than the charcoal granulate (30% and 16%, respectively) in restoring germination.
Chemical and surface analysis of the three carbon supplements revealed that activated carbon had by far the biggest active surface area (641 m² g⁻¹), and thus many more cavities to bind phytotoxins than natural charcoal (total surface area of 142 m² g⁻¹).
We conclude, that charcoal produced by forest fires can have a positive effect on seed germination, but to a much lesser extent than activated carbon. Previous studies, which used activated carbon as an equivalent for charcoal, overestimated the effect of charcoal on germination.     

Introduction of Asian strains and low genetic variation in farmed seaweeds: indications for new management practices

Seaweed farming has a crucial role in the development of future sustainable mariculture. In the same time, spreading of introduced species or genotypes from farms may threaten local ecosystems. We analyzed a molecular marker (mitochondrial cox2-3 spacers) from cultivated and wild specimen of the widely farmed seaweeds Eucheuma and Kappaphycus, collected in Zanzibar on the African east coast where commercial farming was introduced in 1989. Genotypes of presumed Asian origin were found growing on coral reefs and drifting in seagrass meadows, indicating that genotypes introduced for farming have established successfully in the wild in Zanzibar. Only a very low number of genotypes, all of Asian origin, were found in the farms. This indicates a low accessible gene pool, which can limit the capacity for adaptation to changed conditions and disease resistance in the farming system. African genotypes were found in a few sites, showing the potential for future farming of native strains. The ecological effects of the Asian genotypes introduced to coral reefs should also be further investigated in order to evaluate the risk connected with further introductions of new foreign strains.