Distribution and phylogeography of Blanford’s Fox,Vulpes cana (Carnivora: Canidae), in Africa and the Middle East

The distribution of Vulpes cana in the extreme eastern Sahara is described on the basis of new photographic and sight records, as well as a recently acquired specimen from south-eastern Egypt. The proven range of this elusive fox now extends about 1000 km south into Africa along the Red Sea coastal mountains. The proven and predicted distribution ranges of this fox are discussed. Its phylogeography and evolutionary relationship to other foxes of the region are gleaned from analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA sequence and are discussed in light of climatic and paleogeographic history of the area. The results show that the species could have initially moved into Africa during the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition period when several land bridges occurred across the Gulf of Suez. More recent land bridges between the mountains of the Sinai Peninsula and the Eastern Desert of Egypt seem to have developed and disappeared several times during the Pleistocene, possibly allowing genetic exchange between V. cana populations in these two areas. The last of this population exchange and genetic flow between the two areas seems to have ended some 14,000 years ago when the present Gulf of Suez inundation took place.     

Are HIV Epidemics among Men Who Have Sex with Men Emerging in the Middle East and North Africa?: A Systematic Review and Data Synthesis

Background

Men who have sex with men (MSM) bear a disproportionately higher burden of HIV infection than the general population. MSM in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) are a largely hidden population because of a prevailing stigma towards this type of sexual behavior, thereby limiting the ability to assess infection transmission patterns among them. It is widely perceived that data are virtually nonexistent on MSM and HIV in this region. The objective of this review was to delineate, for the first time, the evidence on the epidemiology of HIV among MSM in MENA.

Methods and Findings

This was a systematic review of all biological, behavioral, and other related data on HIV and MSM in MENA. Sources of data included PubMed (Medline), international organizations'' reports and databases, country-level reports and databases including governmental and nongovernmental organization publications, and various other institutional documents. This review showed that onsiderable data are available on MSM and HIV in MENA. While HIV prevalence continues at low levels among different MSM groups, HIV epidemics appear to be emerging in at least few countries, with a prevalence reaching up to 28% among certain MSM groups. By 2008, the contribution of MSM transmission to the total HIV notified cases increased and exceeded 25% in several countries. The high levels of risk behavior (4–14 partners on average in the last six months among different MSM populations) and of biomarkers of risks (such as herpes simplex virus type 2 at 3%–54%), the overall low rate of consistent condom use (generally below 25%), the relative frequency of male sex work (20%–76%), and the substantial overlap with heterosexual risk behavior and injecting drug use suggest potential for further spread.

Conclusions

This systematic review and data synthesis indicate that HIV epidemics appear to be emerging among MSM in at least a few MENA countries and could already be in a concentrated state among several MSM groups. There is an urgent need to expand HIV surveillance and access to HIV testing, prevention, and treatment services in a rapidly narrowing window of opportunity to prevent the worst of HIV transmission among MSM in the Middle East and North Africa. Please see later in the article for the Editors'' Summary     

Remotely Sensed Interannual Variations and Trends in Terrestrial Net Primary Productivity 1981–2000

Spatial and temporal variations in net primary production (NPP) are of great importance to ecological studies, natural resource management, and terrestrial carbon sink estimates. However, most of the existing estimates of interannual variation in NPP at regional and global scales were made at coarse resolutions with climate-driven process models. In this study, we quantified global NPP variation at an 8 km and 10-day resolution from 1981 to 2000 based on satellite observations. The high resolution was achieved using the GLObal Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM), which was driven with variables derived almost entirely from satellite remote sensing. The results show that there was an increasing trend toward enhanced terrestrial NPP that was superimposed on high seasonal and interannual variations associated with climate variability and that the increase was occurring in both northern and tropical latitudes. NPP generally decreased in El Niño season and increased in La Niña seasons, but the magnitude and spatial pattern of the response varied widely between individual events. Our estimates also indicate that the increases in NPP during the period were caused mainly by increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and precipitation. The enhancement of NPP by warming was limited to northern high latitudes (above 50°N); in other regions, the interannual variations in NPP were correlated negatively with temperature and positively with precipitation.     

The Sparrow Question: Social and Scientific Accord in Britain, 1850–1900

During the latter-half of the nineteenth century, the utility of the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) to humankind was a contentious topic. In Britain, numerous actors from various backgrounds including natural history, acclimatisation, agriculture and economic ornithology converged on the bird, as contemporaries sought to calculate its economic cost and benefit to growers. Periodicals and newspapers provided an accessible and anonymous means of expression, through which the debate raged for over 50 years. By the end of the century, sparrows had been cast as detrimental to agriculture. Yet consensus was not achieved through new scientific methods, instruments, or changes in practice. This study instead argues that the rise and fall of scientific disciplines and movements paved the way for consensus on “the sparrow question.” The decline of natural history and acclimatisation stifled a raging debate, while the rising science of economic ornithology sought to align itself with agricultural interests: the latter overwhelmingly hostile to sparrows.     

Phylogenetic and Demographic Insights into Kuhl’s Pipistrelle,Pipistrellus kuhlii,in the Middle East

Kuhl’s pipistrelle is found from Europe and North Africa all of the way to Asia, yet studies have thus far concentrated on the western limit of its distribution. Here we form a multi-marker picture of the diversity of Kuhl’s pipistrelle at a mid point in the Arabian peninsula in an attempt to redress the western sampling bias and to represent a region from which no genetic data has thus far been presented for this species. The three Arabian Cytochrome b haplotypes showed a clear divergence of 19 substitutions from those found in either Europe or North Africa. Molecular dating suggests the Arabian population split from the remaining Kuhl’s somewhere between 0.7 and 1.7 million years before present around the time of a series of aridification events across northern Africa. Well supported lineages within Arabia are typical of that which may be seen after an expansion from multiple Pleistocene refugia, but may also reflect the loss of intermediate haplotypes during historical population fluctuations. A long-term population contraction coincides with climatic changes towards those conditions more typical of contemporary Arabia.     

Urban Sheep Keeping in West Africa: Can Socioeconomic Household Profiles Explain Management and Productivity?

Rapid urbanization in Africa leads to a spatial concentration of people with different cultural origins and socioeconomic backgrounds resulting in a great diversity of life styles and livelihood strategies. One common strategy in Maroua/Cameroon and Bobo-Dioulasso/Burkina Faso is urban sheep keeping. Cluster analyses identified distinct socioeconomic groups with similarities between the towns: traditional livestock keepers, households headed by well educated government employees or traders, and more vulnerable groups formed of households headed by females, retired people or people with limited formal education. The household types in Bobo varied in their perception of the importance and the development of urban sheep keeping and their future plans. Those in Maroua differed in management intensity and in the potential to adapt their practices to the urban environment. Development interventions to reduce environmental pollution and risks for human health associated with urban sheep keeping need to account for these differences in the target group.     

Molecular phylogeny of three Mesalina (Reptilia: Lacertidae) species (M. guttulata, M. brevirostris and M. bahaeldini) from North Africa and the Middle East: another case of paraphyly?

Mesalina is a widespread lacertid genus occurring throughout the Saharo-Sindian region from North Africa to Pakistan. It has been through a series of taxonomic revisions, but the phylogenetic relationships among the species remain unclear. In this study we estimate the phylogeographic structure of M. guttulata across most of its distributional range and we evaluate the relationships between M. guttulata and the sympatric species M. brevirostris and M. bahaeldini using partial mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences (cyt b and 16S). M. guttulata and M. brevirostris represent species complexes, whereas M. bahaeldini considered before as M. guttulata is a recently described species with very restricted distribution. Here we present the first evidence that M. guttulata is a paraphyletic taxon with respect to M. bahaeldini, while M. brevirostris proves to be a polytypic species or even a species complex, confirming previous studies. Although mtDNA markers have several properties that make them suitable for phylogeographic studies, they are not free of difficulties. Phylogeographic inferences within and between closely related species can be mislead by introgression and retention of ancestral polymorphism (incomplete lineage sorting). However, the present distribution pattern, the estimated times of divergence and the significant variation in morphology within M. guttulata led us to accept that the paraphyletic pattern observed, is most likely due to inaccurate taxonomy. Our hypothesis is that what has hitherto been considered as intraspecific variation, actually reflects species-level variation. Furthermore, our biogeographic analyses and the estimated time of divergences suggest that the present distribution of M. guttulata was the result of several dispersal and vicariant events, which are associated with historical changes (climatic oscillations and paleogeographic barriers) of late Miocene and Pliocene period.     

Genetic Structure of Europeans: A View from the North–East

Using principal component (PC) analysis, we studied the genetic constitution of 3,112 individuals from Europe as portrayed by more than 270,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped with the Illumina Infinium platform. In cohorts where the sample size was >100, one hundred randomly chosen samples were used for analysis to minimize the sample size effect, resulting in a total of 1,564 samples. This analysis revealed that the genetic structure of the European population correlates closely with geography. The first two PCs highlight the genetic diversity corresponding to the northwest to southeast gradient and position the populations according to their approximate geographic origin. The resulting genetic map forms a triangular structure with a) Finland, b) the Baltic region, Poland and Western Russia, and c) Italy as its vertexes, and with d) Central- and Western Europe in its centre. Inter- and intra- population genetic differences were quantified by the inflation factor lambda (λ) (ranging from 1.00 to 4.21), fixation index (F_st) (ranging from 0.000 to 0.023), and by the number of markers exhibiting significant allele frequency differences in pair-wise population comparisons. The estimated lambda was used to assess the real diminishing impact to association statistics when two distinct populations are merged directly in an analysis. When the PC analysis was confined to the 1,019 Estonian individuals (0.1% of the Estonian population), a fine structure emerged that correlated with the geography of individual counties. With at least two cohorts available from several countries, genetic substructures were investigated in Czech, Finnish, German, Estonian and Italian populations. Together with previously published data, our results allow the creation of a comprehensive European genetic map that will greatly facilitate inter-population genetic studies including genome wide association studies (GWAS).     

Changes in graminoid stomatal morphology over the last glacial–interglacial transition: evidence from Mount Kenya,East Africa

Stomatal size and density were measured from graminoid cuticular fragments extracted from dated sediments in two tropical-montane crater lakes on Mount Kenya. The sediments had been dated in other studies and spanned 1500–37 000 calibrated years BP. Changes in the mean size and density of the graminoid stomata were found. Using a coarse signal analysis the two lakes gave fairly similar results, although there was some divergence at the start and end of the time period analyzed. There is some correspondence between the atmospheric CO₂ concentration and graminoid stomatal density during the transition from the LGM to the start of the Holocene, where stomatal density decreased while CO₂ concentrations increased. All the changes observed may have been plastic responses within existing species at the site or competitive replacements of grass floras. We argue that higher stomatal density may have been a response to falling CO₂ levels during the last glaciation, accompanying the replacement of a C₃ flora by C₄ species. The stomatal size changes exhibited over this time period may have adapted plants to changes in soil water availability. That stomatal morphology changes in a sample flora (not a single taxon) over millennia is a novel finding, and one that may have implications for paleoecological interpretation and the prediction of grass behavior in the future.     

Water-blooming and toxin-producing cyanobacteria in Swedish fresh and bracish waters, 1981–1995

During the period 1981–1995 331 phytoplankton samples from 153stations in different parts of Sweden were analysed regardingspecies composition and possible toxicity. Toxins were indicated in156 samples which gives a percentage of 47. The toxicity wasconfirmed by mouse bioassay. All samples were collected fromwater-blooming lakes, mainly containing taxa belonging to thecyanobacterial genera Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Microcystis and Planktothrix. In addition to informationabout occurrence of neuro- or hepatotoxins, knowledge about thedistribution of water-blooming lakes in the country was obtained aswell as about their predominating taxa. Microcystisaeruginosa, Anabaena flos-aquae and Aphanizomenonflos-aquae were the most frequently occurring taxa in the lakes.Among the taxa observed, nine different cyanobacterial species withcertainty produce toxins. Microcystis spp. most frequentlyproduced toxic blooms (only hepatotoxins). Anabaena spp.,however, caused the majority of waterblooms. The Anabaenaflos-aquae-group produced neurotoxins [incl. anatoxin-a(s)],neurotoxins + hepatotoxins or only hepatotoxins. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae was only recorded as toxin-producing inthree Swedish lakes, which may be compared with the conditions inFinland, where it was toxic in 36 bloom samples. Aspects are givenon toxicity versus lake acidification and trophic conditions, aswell as on health effects on animals and humanbeings.     

Observed changes in winter wheat phenology in the North China Plain for 1981–2009

Climate change in the last three decades could have major impacts on crop phenological development and subsequently on crop productivity. In this study, trends in winter wheat phenology are investigated in 36 agro-meteorological stations in the North China Plain (NCP) for the period 1981–2009. The study shows that the dates of sowing (BBCH 00), emergence (BBCH 10) and dormancy (start of dormancy) are delayed on the average by 1.5, 1.7 and 1.5 days/decade, respectively. On the contrary, the dates of greenup (end of dormancy), anthesis (BBCH 61) and maturity (BBCH 89) occur early on the average by 1.1, 2.7 and 1.4 days/decade, respectively. In most of the investigated stations, GP2 (dormancy to greenup), GP3 (greenup to anthesis) and GP0 (entire period from emergence to maturity) of winter wheat shortened during the period 1981–2009. Due, however, to early anthesis, grain-filling stage occurs at lower temperatures than before. This, along with shifts in cultivars, slightly prolongs GP4 (anthesis to maturity). Comparison of field-observed CERES (Crop Environment Resource Synthesis)-wheat model-simulated dates of anthesis and maturity suggests that climate warming is the main driver of the changes in winter wheat phenology in the NCP. The findings of this study further suggest that climate change impact studies should be strengthened to adequately account for the complex responses and adaptations of field crops to this global phenomenon.     

The Middle–Late Ordovician brachiopod Plectorthis from North America and its paleobiogeographic significance

Plectorthis is a commonly reported Late Ordovician brachiopod genus from Laurentia and several other tectonic plates. Examination of shells from the Cincinnati Arch type area shows that species previously assigned to the genus have a considerable range of variability, such as ribbing style, shell outline, and musculature. The type species, Orthis plicatella Hall, 1847 is characterized by generally simple costae, with double-rowed aditicules on each rib, and a cordate ventral muscle field. Some species previously attributed to Plectorthis have a subtriangular ventral muscle field and hence a closer affinity to the plaesiomyid genus Austinella. Orthis fissicosta is here demoted to a subspecies of Plectorthis plicatella based on its similar ribbing style to some specimens of the type species. In Laurentia, Plectorthis first appeared in the Darriwilian–Sandbian boundary interval, achieved a relatively high species diversity and wide paleogeographic distribution in pericratonic seas during the early Katian; the subequatorial species attained a notably larger shell than those in the higher paleotropics. The genus did not invade the intracratonic basins of Laurentia and became extinct by the late Katian.     

Making Sense of Scientific Biographies: Scientific achievement,nature of science,and storylines in college students’ essays

In this article, the educative value of scientific biographies will be explored, especially for non-science major college students. During the ‘Scientist’s life and thought’ course, 66 college students read nine scientific biographies including five biologists, covering the canonical scientific achievements in Western scientific history. Students’ essays were initially analysed in terms of four dimensions of scientific achievement: personal traits and talent, socio-cultural environment, scientific inquiry and debate, and historical significance. Further analysis focused on noticeable aspects in the nature of science (NOS). Based on the analyses, the idea of a story grid was devised in order to identify major storylines that show students various ways of making sense of scientific biographies. The analysis shows the aspects in which biographies are instrumental for students to identify and engage critically with issues related to the NOS. The article concludes with some implications for designing history of science courses for non-science major college students.     

Application of traditional ecological knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa: a long-neglected strategy?

Management and sustainability of fisheries has been guided by theories and models derived from modern ecological science. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has been ignored in all spheres of decision-making for management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa. TEK guided African communities in the way they associated and interacted with the natural environment around them. Spiritual rituals, religious practices, social taboos and sacred animal totems guided the peoples on how and when to utilize the available natural resources. In the advent of modern scientific knowledge, the African traditional knowledge quickly faded away and is generally seen as irrelevant. Today the potential of TEK in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa has not been realized and its status and future is unknown. TEK should be complementary to modern scientific knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries. This paper therefore focuses on the potential application of TEK in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa and the issues that impede its application.     

Dynamic changes in photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence in Nicotiana tabacum infested by Bemisia tabaci (Middle East–Asia Minor 1) nymphs

Bemisia tabaci Middle East–Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) is a worldwide pest. To determine whether MEAM1 nymphs produce the same symptoms in different host plants, we measured the plant growth and chlorophyll content of tobacco and cotton plants that were infested by MEAM1 nymphs. Furthermore, to investigate the spatial and temporal changes in photosynthesis caused by MEAM1 nymphs, the net photosynthetic rate (Pn) and chlorophyll a fluorescence of local and systemic tobacco leaves were assayed at 8, 11, 14, and 20 days after MEAM1 adult removal, which represent the stages of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th instar nymphs, respectively. The results showed that MEAM1 nymph infestation reduced the plant height and internode length of tobacco at 14 and 20 days, as well as the dry weight of infested and systemic tobacco leaves. However, MEAM1 nymph infestation did not affect the plant height or internode length of cotton. Also, the dry weight and chlorophyll and carotenoid content of infested and systemic leaves of cotton plants were not influenced by MEAM1 nymph infestation. However, the contents of chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids in infested tobacco leaves decreased over time; the chlorophyll a content of systemic tobacco leaves decreased at 11, 14, and 20 days. The chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in infested and systemic leaves of cotton plants were not influenced by MEAM1 nymph infestation. In addition, the Pn of infested tobacco leaves decreased at 14 and 20 days, while the Pn in systemic tobacco leaves decreased after 11 days. The greatest decrease in performance index on absorption basis (PI _ABS ) of infested and systemic tobacco leaves occurred on day 14. The fluorescence intensity at 2 ms (J peak) and 300 μs (K peak) increased on day 14, which indicates that 3rd instar nymphs caused serious damage to the primary photochemical reactions and donor side of PSII. These results suggest that MEAM1 nymph infestation had different effects on tobacco and cotton plants. The infestation caused spatial and temporal changes in photosynthesis in tobacco plants. The lower chlorophyll a content may have been related to the lower net photosynthetic rate of systemic and infested tobacco leaves. The decreased stability of the oxygen-evolving complex and the reaction center of PSII and the decrease in electron transport were the main reasons for the decrease in the level of photosynthesis in tobacco leaves caused by MEAM1 nymphs during various stages of infestation.