A morphometric analysis of the phloem-unloading pathway in developing tobacco leaves

A morphometric analysis of developing leaves of Nicotiana tabacum L. was conducted to determine whether imported photoassimilates could be unloaded by symplastic transport and whether interruption of symplastic transport could account for termination of import. Five classes of veins were recognized, based on numbers of cells in transverse section. Photoassimilate is unloaded primarily from Class III veins in tissue nearing the end of the sink phase of development. Smaller veins (Class IV and V) do not transport or unload photoassimilate in sink tissue because the sieve elements of these veins are immature until after the tissue stops importing. In Class III veins the sieve element-companion cell (SE-CC) complexes are surrounded by phloem parenchyma which abuts the bundle sheath. Along the most obvious unloading route, from SE-CC complex to phloem parenchyma to bundle sheath to mesophyll cells, the frequency of plasmodesmata at each interface increases. To determine whether this pattern of plasmodesmatal contact is consistent with symplastic unloading we first demonstrated, by derivation from Fick's law that the rate of diffusion from a compartment is proportional to a number N which is equal to the ratio of surface area to volume of the compartment multiplied by the frequency of pores (plasmodesmata) which connect it to the next compartment. N was calculated for each compartment within the vein which has the SE-CC complex as its center, and was shown to be statistically the same in all cases except one. These observations are consistent with a symplastic unloading route. As the leaf tissue matures and stops importing, plasmodesmatal frequency along the unloading route decreases and contact area between cells also decreases as intercellular spaces enlarge. As a result, the number of plasmodesmata between the SE-CC complex and the first layer of mesophyll cells declines in nonimporting tissue to 34% of the number found in importing tissue, indicating that loss of symplastic continuity between the phloem and surrounding cells plays a role in termination of photoassimilate unloading.Abbreviation SE-CC sieve element-companion cell     

Phloem unloading in tobacco sink leaves: insensitivity to anoxia indicates a symplastic pathway

Phloem unloading in transition sink leaves of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) was analyzed by quantitative autoradiography. Detectable levels of labeled photoassimilates entered sink leaves approx. 1 h after source leaves were provided with ¹⁴CO₂. Samples of tissue were removed from sink leaves when label was first detected and further samples were taken at the end of an experimental phloem-unloading period. The amount of label in veins and in surrounding cells was determined by microdensitometry of autoradiographs using a microspectrophotometer. Photoassimilate unloaded from first-, second-and third-order veins but not from smaller veins. Import termination in individual veins was gradual. Import by the sink leaf was completely inhibited by exposing the sink leaf to anaerobic conditions, by placing the entire plant in the cold, or by steam-girdling the sink-leaf petiole. Phloem unloading was completely inhibited by cold; however, phloem unloading continued when the sink-leaf petiole was steam girdled or when the sink leaf was exposed to a N₂ atmosphere. Compartmental efflux-analysis indicated that only a small percentage of labeled nutrients was present in the free space after unloading from sink-leaf veins in a N₂ atmosphere. The results are consistent with passive symplastic transfer of photoassimilates from phloem to surrounding cells.Symbol VI radio of ¹⁴C in veins and interveinal tissue     

植物体内光合同化物韧皮部装载和卸出研究进展

近年来研究表明,植物体内光合同化物的韧皮部装载和卸出均有其本途径和质外体途径,装载转运的糖类主要有：（２）棉子糖及其人类似物（以共质体方式装载）;（２）蔗糖（以质外体方式装载）。同化物的共质体卸出可通过扩散和集中作用实现,而质外体卸出则根据蔗糖在质外体是否水解而分为两种类型。卸出和装载的途径、机理因植物种类及库源关系而不同,也会受生长发育阶段及环境的变化而调整。深入研究韧皮部装载和帛出调控机制,对     

苹果果实发育过程中α-淀粉酶的活性、数量变化和亚细胞定位

淀粉降解代谢与种子萌发、叶片光合作用、块根贮藏及肉质果实的发育密切相关.α-淀粉酶是催化淀粉水解的重要酶之一,然而由于它在生活细胞中经常定位于叶绿体或质体之外,与淀粉基质在亚细胞水平上相互隔离,所以该酶在植物活体内的生理功能至今不完全清楚.研究表明,在苹果(Malus domestica Borkh cv. Starkrimson)果实发育过程中,α-淀粉酶活性由低到高,与淀粉含量大致呈现互为消长的变化.Western blotting实验证明,在果实发育过程中,α-淀粉酶的表观数量也是由少到多,与活性的变化一致.利用胶体金免疫电镜定位技术证明,果实内α-淀粉酶主要定位于质体内,其他亚细胞区域内α-淀粉酶分布很少;尤其在果实发育中后期,围绕质体内淀粉粒有高密度的α-淀粉酶分布,说明该酶主要分布于细胞内功能区域.α-淀粉酶优先定位于质体内的亚细胞分布特点在果实整个生长发育期没有变化.随着果实发育的推进,质体内胶体金分布密度显著增加,此结果与Western blotting实验相互印证.推测α-淀粉酶参与了果实细胞内质体中淀粉的水解过程.     

Sucrose carrier RcSCR1 is involved in sucrose retrieval, but not in sucrose unloading in growing hypocotyls of Ricinus communis L

The transport of assimilates from source to sink tissues is mediated by the phloem. Along the vascular system the phloem changes its physiological function from loading phloem to transport and unloading phloem. Sucrose carrier proteins have been identified in the transport phloem, but it is unclear whether the physiological role of these transporters is phloem unloading of sucrose or retrieval of apoplasmic sucrose back into the sieve element/companion cell complex. Here, we describe the dynamic expression of the Ricinus communis sucrose carrier RcSCR1 in the hypocotyl at different sink strengths. Our results indicate that phloem unloading in castor bean is not catalysed by the phloem loader RcSCR1. However, this sucrose carrier represents the molecular basis of the sucrose retrieval mechanism along the transport phloem, which is dynamically adjusted to the sink strength. As a consequence, we assume that other release carrier(s) exist in sink tissues, such as the hypocotyl, in R. communis.     

苹果果实韧皮部及其周围薄壁细胞的超微结构观察和功能分析

利用透射电镜技术,对发育过程中的苹果（Ｍａｌｕｓ ｄｏｍｅｓｔｉｃａ Ｂｏｒｋｈ）果实韧皮部及其周围薄壁细胞的超微结构进行了观察研究。结果表明,在主脉和细脉的筛分子（ＳＥ）和伴胞（ＣＣ）之间存在胞间连丝,胞间连丝在筛分子一侧是单通道,在伴胞一侧呈多分枝通道。在细脉中筛分子小,伴胞大,在主脉中则是筛分子大,伴胞小。伴胞内胞质和核质稠密,富含线粒体、内质网和高尔基体,液泡内往往呈现多膜包被的囊泡结构,     

Assimilate Partitioning in the Variegated Coleus Leaf

Mature leaves of a variegated cultivar of Coleus blumei Benth. with a green border and central albino region constitute a source-sink system suitable for studies on assimilate partitioning. Leaves treated with ¹⁴CO₂ on a small part of the intact green border export assimilate via the shortest path into the stem. Leaves with all but a small lobe of the green border removed show different partitioning of labeled assimilates when the leaf is exposed to ¹⁴CO₂ (Fisher and Eschrich, 1985): The whole albino region of the leaf is supplied but no tracer is exported into the stem. When the green border is completely removed, ¹⁴CO₂-treatment of the albino region leads to the fixation of CO₂, obviously by PEP carboxylase, as indicated by the occurrence of labeled malate. Results show that the albino region of the variegated leaf constitutes a potential sink when deprived of its green border. In addition, CO₂-fixation by PEP carboxylase in albino tissue seems to indicate a common capacity of leaves which is normally masked by photosynthesis. The difference of assimilate partitioning between leaves with intact and leaves with partly removed green borders demonstrates that the unlabeled assimilates control the movement of labeled assimilates.     

Transport of photoassimilates in plants under unfavourable environmental conditions

Transport of photoassimilates linking functionally plant, as a whole system, is discussed as a target for different environmental stresses. Anatomical, physiological and biochemical aspects of phloem transport, phloem loading and unloading are taken into consideration. In the light of modern theoríes of assimilate transport some historical hypotheses are also shown, due to their input into the progress of transport science. The role of phloem unloading in plant acclimation to environment stress is not clear, however changes in source/sink ratio was often observed as the effect of stress. The blockage of sieve tubes found as the result of given stress may be of secondary importance. On the other hand, phloem loading process seems to be an important target for different environmental stresses.     

Turgor-sensitive sucrose and amino acid transport into developing seeds of Pisum sativum. Effect of a high sucrose or mannitol concentration in experiments with empty ovules

Sugar and amino acid transport into empty ovules of Pisum sativum L. cv. Marzia was examined. In fruits containing 4–6 developing seeds, the embryo was removed from four ovules. After this surgical treatment, each empty seed coat was filled with a solution (pH 5.5) containing a low (0, 50 or 200 m M ), medium (350, 400 or 500 m M ) or high (0.7 or 1 M ) concentration of sucrose and/or mannitol. In pulse-labelling experiments with sucrose and α-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB), transport of sucrose and AIB into an empty ovule filled with a solution containing a high sucrose concentration was the same as transport into an ovule filled with a mannitol solution of similar osmolarity, demonstrating that a high sucrose concentration in the seed coat apoplast affects phloem transport of sucrose and AIB into the seed coat only by the osmotic effect. The osmolarity of a given solution filling the seed coat cavity appeared to be important for phloem transport of sucrose and AIB into empty ovules.
In our experiments, 350 m M appeared to be the optimal concentration for sucrose and AIB transport into the cavity within an empty ovule, giving results comparable with transport into intact ovules. A lower osmolarity of the solution induced less transport. Very high sucrose or mannitol concentrations caused a strong inhibition of sucrose and AIB unloading from the seed coat, so that transport into the empty ovules was inhibited. A low (strongly negative) but not too low osmotic potential of the solution in the seed coat apoplast seems necessary to maintain a normal rate of phloem transport into developing seeds. Apparently, the "sink strength" of developing seeds is turgor-sensitive.     

Import of 14C-Photosynthate by Developing Leaves of Sugarcane

Sink-to-source transition was studied in developing sugarcane (Saccharum interspecific variety L62–96) leaves. Fully-expanded, mature sugarcane leaves were fed ¹⁴CO₂ for 20 minutes, incorporating about 617 Bq. After five hours the leaves of each plant were cut into 1-cm-length segments that were weighed and then placed in scintillation cocktail for counting. All leaves younger than the leaf fed ¹⁴CO₂ imported labeled photoassimilate. Three to four leaves had both importing and non-importing regions within the blade and a distinct transition region between them. A transition region was observed in leaves which had expanded to between 30 and 90 % of final blade length. Radioactivity per gram fresh weight was calculated as a measure of sink strength. Sink strength was greatest in the youngest leaf and declined with leaf age. The results of this study indicate that 1) import of photosynthate by developing sugarcane leaves occurs over a longer span of developmental ages than in dicotyledonous leaves and 2) the actual tissue region undergoing transition within such a leaf can be resolved as narrow zone between the importing and non-importing regions.     

PC-1分子在细胞内定位的深入探讨

为了寻找影响PC-1分子进入细胞核的序列,将该分子不同区段分别与EGFP融合表达,通过观察绿色荧光蛋白在细胞内的分布,发现PC-1分子的第112～190区段是一独立的功能区,缺失这一区段后,分子的其余部分能够进入细胞核并在其中积累,这一区段使PC-1分子被排斥于细胞核之外,并在细胞质中浓缩成许多点状结构.运用以SOS恢复系统为基础的酵母双杂交方法,发现PC-1分子能够定位于细胞膜上,通过缺失突变发现该分子的第112～190区段是一独立的细胞膜定位信号序列,这一序列将其定位于细胞的胞膜上.     

On the mechanisms of nectar secretion: revisited

Background and Scope

Models of nectar formation and exudation in multilayered nectaries with modified stomata or permeable cuticle are evaluated. In the current symplasmic model the pre-nectar moves from terminal phloem through the symplasm into the apoplasm (cell walls and intercellular spaces) with nectar formation by either granulocrine or eccrine secretion and its diffusion outwards. It is concluded, however, that no secretory granules are actually produced by the endoplasmic reticulum, and that secretory Golgi vesicles are not involved in the transport of nectar sugar. Therefore, the concept of granulocrine secretion of nectar should be discarded. The specific function of the endomembrane system in nectary cells remains unknown. According to the apoplasmic model, the pre-nectar moves from the terminal phloem in the apoplasm and, on the way, is transformed from phloem sap into nectar. However, viewed ultrastructurally, the unloading (terminal) phloem of nectaries appears to be less active than that of the leaf minor veins, and is therefore not actively involved in the secretion of pre-nectar components into the apoplasm. This invalidates the apoplasmic model. Neither model provides an explanation for the origin of the driving force for nectar discharge.

Proposal

A new model is proposed in which nectar moves by a pressure-driven mass flow in the nectary apoplasm while pre-nectar sugars diffuse from the sieve tubes through the symplasm to the secretory cells, where nectar is formed and sugars cross the plasma membrane by active transport (‘eccrine secretion’). The pressure originates as the result of water influx in the apoplasm from the symplasm along the sugar concentration gradient. It follows from this model that there can be no combinations of apoplasmic and symplasmic pre-nectar movements. The mass-flow mechanism of nectar exudation appears to be universal and applicable to all nectaries irrespective of their type, morphology and anatomy, presence or absence of modified stomata, and their own vascular system.     

Phloem unloading and ‘sink strength’: The parallel between the site of attachment of Cuscuta and developing legume seeds

Sink regions play a central role in determining assimilate distribution patterns. Two factors are discussed which have a strong effect on the sink strength of a sink, viz. phloem unloading and turgor-sensitive transport. Sink strength may be defined as the capacity of phloem in the sink region to import assimilates from other parts of the plants and to release the imported substances into the sink apoplast.A stem parasitized by Cuscuta represents a very strong sink. A review is presented of data on enhanced phloem unloading, at the site of attachment of Custuta. Recent data on metabolically controlled sucrose and amino acid unloading into the seed coat apoplast of developing legume seeds show a remarkable parallel with phloem unloading in a parasitized Vicia faba stem. Data on turgor-sensitive sucrose and amino acid transport into developing seeds are presented, which throw new light on the pressure flow theory of phloem transport.     

碱性Krppel样因子的亚细胞定位

为进一步加强对碱性Kr櫣ｐｐｅｌ样因子 (basicKr櫣ｐｐｅｌ likefactor,BKLF)的认识 ,用直接荧光和间接荧光两种观察方法证明hBKLF (humanbasicKr櫣ｐｐｅｌ likefactor)定位在细胞核内 ,并且呈点状均匀分布在核质中 ,而在核仁内没有分布。这与许多转录因子 (但不是全部 )的定位方式相似。为确定影响核定位的特异性序列 ,通过观察系列GFP/hBKLF缺失体在细胞内的定位发现 :hBKLF分子的 3个锌指结构和除去这部分的N端区域都有核定位信号的功能 ;hBKLF分子的亚核定位结构位于N端区域 ,包括CtBP结合序列和脯氨酸富含区。这些结果为进一步对BKLF功能的研究提供了基础     

葡萄果肉同化物卸载区细胞间的共质体联系与隔离

应用透射电镜技术对葡萄果肉同化物卸载区细胞（周缘维管束韧皮部及其周围同化物库细胞）的超微结构及胞间联系进行了系统观察。结果表明：在葡萄果实发育前期,韧皮部筛分子（ＳＥ）与伴胞（ＣＣ）之间、ＳＥ／ＣＣ复合体之间、ＳＥ／ＣＣ复合体与韧皮薄壁细胞之间,以及韧皮薄壁细胞相互之间都有十分丰富的胞间连丝,因此,韧皮部内之间、ＳＥ／ＣＣ复合体与韧皮薄壁细胞之间,以及韧皮薄壁细胞相互之间都有十分丰富的胞间连丝,因