Sensitization of prostate carcinoma cells to Apo2L/TRAIL by a Bcl-2 family protein inhibitor

Overexpression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins may play an important role in the aggressive behavior of prostate cancer cells and their resistance to therapy. The Bcl-2 homology 3 domain (BH3) is a uniquely important functional element within the pro-apoptotic class of the Bcl-2-related proteins, mediating their ability to dimerize with other Bcl-2-related proteins and promote apoptosis. The BH3 inhibitors (BH3Is) function by disrupting the interactions mediated by the BH3 domain between pro- and anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family and liberating more Bax/Bak to induce mitochondrial membrane permeabilization. LNCaP-derived C4-2 human prostate cancer cells are quite resistant to non-tagged, human recombinant soluble Apo2 ligand [Apo2L, also Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, TRAIL], a tumor specific drug that is now in clinical trials. However, when Apo2L/TRAIL was combined with the Bcl-xL inhibitor, BH3I-2′, it induced apoptosis synergistically through activation of Caspase-8 and the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bid, resulting in the activation of effector Caspase-3 and proteolytic cleavage of Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, events that were blocked by the pan-caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk. Our data indicate that, in combination with the BH3 mimetic, BH3I-2′, Apo2L/TRAIL synergistically induces apoptosis in C4-2 human prostate cancer cells through both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways.     

Bcl-2 is a better ABT-737 target than Bcl-xL or Bcl-w and only Noxa overcomes resistance mediated by Mcl-1, Bfl-1, or Bcl-B

The novel anticancer drug ABT-737 is a Bcl-2 Homology 3 (BH3)-mimetic that induces apoptosis by inhibiting pro-survival Bcl-2 proteins. ABT-737 binds with equal affinity to Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and Bcl-w in vitro and is expected to overrule apoptosis resistance mediated by these Bcl-2 proteins in equal measure. We have profiled ABT-737 specificity for all six pro-survival Bcl-2 proteins, in p53 wild-type or p53-mutant human T-leukemic cells. Bcl-B was untargeted, like Bfl-1 and Mcl-1, in accord with their low affinity for ABT-737 in vitro. However, Bcl-2 proved a better ABT-737 target than Bcl-xL and Bcl-w. This was reflected in differential apoptosis-sensitivity to ABT-737 alone, or combined with etoposide. ABT-737 was not equally effective in displacing BH3-only proteins or Bax from Bcl-2, as compared with Bcl-xL or Bcl-w, offering an explanation for the differential ABT-737 sensitivity of tumor cells overexpressing these proteins. Inducible expression demonstrated that BH3-only proteins Noxa, but not Bim, Puma or truncated Bid could overrule ABT-737 resistance conferred by Bcl-B, Bfl-1 or Mcl-1. These data identify Bcl-B, Bfl-1 and Mcl-1, but also Bcl-xL and Bcl-w as potential mediators of ABT-737 resistance and indicate that target proteins can be differentially sensitive to BH3-mimetics, depending on the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins they are complexed with.     

Bcl-2 family member Bfl-1/A1 sequesters truncated bid to inhibit is collaboration with pro-apoptotic Bak or Bax

Following caspase-8 mediated cleavage, a carboxyl-terminal fragment of the BH3 domain-only Bcl-2 family member Bid transmits the apoptotic signal from death receptors to mitochondria. In a screen for possible regulators of Bid, we defined Bfl-1/A1 as a potent Bid interacting protein. Bfl-1 is an anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member, whose preferential expression in hematopoietic cells and endothelium is controlled by inflammatory stimuli. Its mechanism of action is unknown. We find that Bfl-1 associates with both full-length Bid and truncated (t)Bid, via the Bid BH3 domain. Cellular expression of Bfl-1 confers protection against CD95- and Trail receptor-induced cytochrome c release. In vitro assays, using purified mitochondria and recombinant proteins, demonstrate that Bfl-1 binds full-length Bid, but does not interfere with its processing by caspase-8, or with its mitochondrial association. Confocal microscopy supports that Bfl-1, which at least in part constitutively localizes to mitochondria, does not impede tBid translocation. However, Bfl-1 remains tightly and selectively bound to tBid and blocks collaboration between tBid and Bax or Bak in the plane of the mitochondrial membrane, thereby preventing mitochondrial apoptotic activation. Lack of demonstrable interaction between Bfl-1 and Bak or Bax in the mitochondrial membrane suggests that Bfl-1 generally prevents the formation of a pro-apoptotic complex by sequestering BH3 domain-only proteins.     

Underphosphorylated BAD interacts with diverse antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins to regulate apoptosis

Survival factors activate kinases which, in turn, phosphorylate the proapoptotic Bcl-xl/Bcl-2-associated death promoter homolog (BAD) protein at key serine residues. Phosphorylated BAD interacts with 14-3-3 proteins, and overexpression of 14-3-3 attenuates BAD-mediated apoptosis. Although BAD is known to interact with Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Bcl-xL, the exact relationship between BAD and anti- or proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins has not been analyzed systematically. Using the yeast two-hybrid protein interaction assay, we found that BAD interacted negligibly with proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins. Even though wild type BAD only interacted with selected numbers of antiapoptotic proteins, underphosphorylated mutant BAD interacted with all antiapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins tested (Bcl-2, Bcl-w, Bcl-xL, Bfl-1/A1, Mcl-1, Ced-9, and BHRF-1). Using nonphosphorylated recombinant BAD expressed in bacteria, direct interactions between BAD and diverse antiapoptotic Bcl-2 members were also observed. Furthermore, apoptosis induced by BAD was blocked by coexpression with Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Bfl-1. Comparison of BAD orthologs from zebrafish to human indicated the conservation of a 14-3-3 binding site and the BH3 domain during evolution. Thus, highly conserved BAD interacts with diverse antiapoptotic Bcl-2 members to regulate apoptosis.     

Mcl-1 interacts with truncated Bid and inhibits its induction of cytochrome c release and its role in receptor-mediated apoptosis

Engagement of death receptors such as tumor necrosis factor-R1 and Fas brings about the cleavage of cytosolic Bid to truncated Bid (tBid), which translocates to mitochondria to activate Bax/Bak, resulting in the release of cytochrome c. The mechanism underlying the activation, however, is not fully understood. Here, we have identified the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Mcl-1 as a potent tBid-binding partner. Site-directed mutagenesis reveals that the Bcl-2 homology (BH)3 domain of tBid is essential for binding to Mcl-1, whereas all three BH domains (BH1, BH2, and BH3) of Mcl-1 are required for interaction with tBid. In vitro studies using isolated mitochondria and recombinant proteins demonstrate that Mcl-1 strongly inhibits tBid-induced cytochrome c release. In addition to its ability to interact directly with Bax and Bak, tBid also binds Mcl-1 and displaces Bak from the Mcl-1-Bak complex. Importantly, overexpression of Mcl-1 confers resistance to the induction of apoptosis by both TRAIL and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in HeLa cells, whereas targeting Mcl-1 by RNA interference sensitizes HeLa cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Therefore, our study demonstrates a novel regulation of tBid by Mcl-1 through protein-protein interaction in apoptotic signaling from death receptors to mitochondria.     

µ-Calpain conversion of antiapoptotic Bfl-1 (BCL2A1) into a prodeath factor reveals two distinct alpha-helices inducing mitochondria-mediated apoptosis

Anti-apoptotic Bfl-1 and pro-apoptotic Bax, two members of the Bcl-2 family sharing a similar structural fold, are classically viewed as antagonist regulators of apoptosis. However, both proteins were reported to be death inducers following cleavage by the cysteine protease μ-calpain. Here we demonstrate that calpain-mediated cleavage of full-length Bfl-1 induces the release of C-terminal membrane active α-helices that are responsible for its conversion into a pro-apoptotic factor. A careful comparison of the different membrane-active regions present in the Bfl-1 truncated fragments with homologous domains of Bax show that helix α5, but not α6, of Bfl-1 induces cell death and cytochrome c release from purified mitochondria through a Bax/Bak-dependent mechanism. In contrast, both helices α5 and α6 of Bax permeabilize mitochondria regardless of the presence of Bax or Bak. Moreover, we provide evidence that the α9 helix of Bfl-1 promotes cytochrome c release and apoptosis through a unique membrane-destabilizing action whereas Bax-α9 does not display such activities. Hence, despite a common 3D-structure, C-terminal toxic domains present on Bfl-1 and Bax function in a dissimilar manner to permeabilize mitochondria and induce apoptosis. These findings provide insights for designing therapeutic approaches that could exploit the cleavage of endogenous Bcl-2 family proteins or the use of Bfl-1/Bax-derived peptides to promote tumor cell clearance.     

Overexpression of bcl-2 enhances LIGHT- and interferon-gamma -mediated apoptosis in Hep3BT2 cells

LIGHT is a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily and is the ligand for LT-betaR, HVEM, and decoy receptor 3. LIGHT has a cytotoxic effect, which is further enhanced by the presence of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). Although LIGHT/IFN-gamma can activate caspase activity, neither benzyloxycarbonyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-fluoromethylketone nor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone can completely inhibit LIGHT/IFN-gamma-mediated apoptosis. Moreover, overexpression of Bcl-2 further enhances LIGHT/IFN-gamma-mediated apoptosis. It appears that LIGHT and IFN-gamma act synergistically to activate caspase-3, with the resultant cleavage of Bcl-2, removal of the BH4 domain, leading to conversion of Bcl-2 from an antiapoptotic to a proapoptotic form in p53-deficient hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3BT2 cells. Thus, LIGHT seems to be able to override the protective effect of Bcl-2 and induce cell death. Although benzyloxycarbonyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-fluoromethylketone and benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone can prevent the cleavage of Bcl-2 by LIGHT/IFN-gamma, they only partially inhibit apoptosis in Hep3BT2 cells that are overexpressing Bcl-2. In contrast, both LIGHT/IFN-gamma-mediated apoptosis and Bcl-2 cleavage are inhibited by free radical scavengers, indicating that free radicals may play an essential role in LIGHT/IFN-gamma-mediated apoptosis at a step upstream of caspase-3 activation. These results suggest that LIGHT signaling may diverge into multiple, separate processes.     

A surface groove essential for viral Bcl-2 function during chronic infection in vivo

Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins inhibit apoptosis in cultured cells by binding BH3 domains of proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members via a hydrophobic BH3 binding groove on the protein surface. We investigated the physiological importance of the BH3 binding groove of an antiapoptotic Bcl-2 protein in mammals in vivo by analyzing a viral Bcl-2 family protein. We show that the gamma-herpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) Bcl-2 family protein (gammaHV68 v-Bcl-2), which is known to inhibit apoptosis in cultured cells, inhibits both apoptosis in primary lymphocytes and Bax toxicity in yeast. Nuclear magnetic resonance determination of the gammaHV68 v-Bcl-2 structure revealed a BH3 binding groove that binds BH3 domain peptides from proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bax and Bak via a molecular mechanism shared with host Bcl-2 family proteins, involving a conserved arginine in the BH3 peptide binding groove. Mutations of this conserved arginine and two adjacent amino acids to alanine (SGR to AAA) within the BH3 binding groove resulted in a properly folded protein that lacked the capacity of the wild-type gammaHV68 v-Bcl-2 to bind Bax BH3 peptide and to block Bax toxicity in yeast. We tested the physiological importance of this v-Bcl-2 domain during viral infection by engineering viral mutants encoding a v-Bcl-2 containing the SGR to AAA mutation. This mutation resulted in a virus defective for both efficient reactivation of gammaHV68 from latency and efficient persistent gammaHV68 replication. These studies demonstrate an essential functional role for amino acids in the BH3 peptide binding groove of a viral Bcl-2 family member during chronic infection.     

MAP-1, a novel proapoptotic protein containing a BH3-like motif that associates with Bax through its Bcl-2 homology domains

A novel Bax-associating protein, named MAP-1 (Modulator of Apoptosis), has been identified in a yeast two-hybrid screen. MAP-1 contains a BH3-like (BH: Bcl-2 homology) motif and mediates caspase-dependent apoptosis in mammalian cells when overexpressed. MAP-1 homodimerizes and associates with the proapoptotic Bax and the prosurvival Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L) of the Bcl-2 family in vitro and in vivo in mammalian cells. Mutagenesis analyses revealed that the BH3-like domain in MAP-1 is not required for its association with Bcl-X(L) but is required for association with Bax and for mediating apoptosis. Interestingly, in contrast to other Bax-associating proteins such as Bcl-X(L) and Bid, which require the BH3 and BH1 domains of Bax, respectively, for binding, the binding of MAP-1 to Bax appears to require all three BH domains (BH1, BH2, and BH3) of Bax, because point mutation of the critical amino acid in any one of these domains is sufficient to abolish its binding to MAP-1. These data suggest that MAP-1 mediates apoptosis through a mechanism that involves binding to Bax.     

C-terminal Residues Regulate Localization and Function of the Antiapoptotic Protein Bfl-1

Unlike other antiapoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family, Bfl-1 does not contain a well defined C-terminal transmembrane domain, and whether the C-terminal tail of Bfl-1 functions as a membrane anchor is not yet clearly established. The molecular modeling study of the full-length Bfl-1 performed within this work suggests that Bfl-1 may co-exist in two distinct conformational states: one in which its C-terminal helix α9 is inserted in the hydrophobic groove formed by the BH1–3 domains of Bfl-1 and one with its C terminus. Parallel analysis of the subcellular localization of Bfl-1 indicates that even if Bfl-1 may co-exist in two distinct conformational states, most of the endogenous protein is tightly associated with the mitochondria by its C terminus in both healthy and apoptotic peripheral blood lymphocytes as well as in malignant B cell lines. However, the helix α9 of Bfl-1, and therefore the binding of Bfl-1 to mitochondria, is not absolutely required for the antiapoptotic activity of Bfl-1. A particular feature of Bfl-1 is the amphipathic character of its C-terminal helix α9. Our data clearly indicate that this property of helix α9 is required for the anchorage of Bfl-1 to the mitochondria but also regulates the antiapoptotic function Bfl-1.Apoptosis is a highly regulated process that plays a key role in maintaining cellular homeostasis, and a delicate balance between proapoptotic and antiapoptotic regulators of apoptosis pathways ensures the proper survival of cells in a variety of tissues. Imbalance between proapoptotic and antiapoptotic proteins occurs in diseases such as cancer, where an overexpression of antiapoptotic proteins endows cells with a selective survival advantage that promotes malignancy. Bcl-2 family members are essential regulators of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, which act at the level of mitochondria as initiators of cell death (1). This family comprises nearly 20 proteins divided into three main groups. Antiapoptotic members such as Bcl-2, Bcl-x_L, Bcl-w, Bfl-1, and Mcl-1 promote cell survival, whereas proapoptotic members such as Bax and Bak function as death effectors. The life and death balance is displaced in favor of cell death by proapoptotic BH3-only proteins such as Bim, Bad, Bid, Puma, and Noxa, which interact with antiapoptotic proteins and inactivate their function (2) or directly interact with and activate the Bax-like proteins (3).Distinct subcellular localizations of antiapoptotic members have been reported correlating with the accessibility of their C-terminal tail. The C-terminal tail of the antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2, Bcl-x_L, and Bcl-w possess a hydrophobic region known to be a membrane anchor domain. Thus, Bcl-2 localizes to mitochondria as well as to the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membranes (4, 5, 6), and deletion of its C-terminal amino acids abrogates its targeting to the outer mitochondrial membrane (7). In contrast, in healthy cells, Bcl-x_L and Bcl-w localize mainly in the cytosol because their C-terminal tails are sequestered. Bcl-x_L exists as a homodimer through the exchange of the C-terminal tail bound in the hydrophobic groove of the reciprocal dimer partner (8), whereas the C-terminal tail of Bcl-w occupies its own hydrophobic groove in the monomer form (9, 10). It has been proposed that, following apoptotic stimuli, interaction of the BH3 domain from BH3-only proteins with the hydrophobic groove of Bcl-w or Bcl-x_L liberates their C-terminal tail and then the two proteins translocate to the mitochondria (8, 11).Unlike Bcl-2, Bcl-x_L, and Bcl-w, Bfl-1 and its murine homolog, A1, do not contain a well defined C-terminal transmembrane domain (12, 13). C-terminal ends of these two proteins are similar and contain several hydrophilic residues that interrupt their putative transmembrane hydrophobic domain. Whether the C-terminal tail of Bfl-1 functions as a membrane anchor remains to be clarified. Immunofluorescence analyses in an earlier study have shown that overexpressed human Bfl-1 is predominantly localized in the endoplasmic/nuclear envelope regions (14). Then, recent independent studies, with Bfl-1-overexpressing cells, suggested that Bfl-1 localizes to the mitochondria (15, 16, 17) and that the C-terminal end of Bfl-1 is important for anchoring Bfl-1 to the mitochondria due to GFP-Bfl-1 being associated to the mitochondria, whereas GFP-Bfl-1, devoid of its C-terminal tail, also localizes in the cytosol (16, 18). However, localization of endogenous Bfl-1 has never been investigated. In this study, we present a molecular modeling study of full-length Bfl-1 (FL-Bfl-1), based on the crystal structure of a truncated form of Bfl-1 (residues 1–149) in complex with the BIM-BH3 peptide (Protein Data Bank code 2VM6).⁴ Our model suggests that Bfl-1 may co-exist in two distinct conformational states, the first one with its C-terminal helix α9 (residues 155–175) inserted in the hydrophobic groove formed by the BH1–3 domain of Bfl-1, and the second one with its C-terminal tail. Interestingly, helical wheel projection of the C-terminal helix of Bfl-1 highlights its amphipathic character, a feature of transmembrane helices or membrane anchors. These observations incited the reinvestigation of the subcellular localization of Bfl-1 in both malignant B cell lines and peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs).⁵ We demonstrate here that endogenous Bfl-1 is preferentially anchored to the mitochondria in malignant B cell lines but also in healthy PBLs. Moreover, we show that both the anchorage of Bfl-1 to the mitochondria and the anti-apoptotic function of the protein are dependent on the amphipathic nature of the C-terminal helix.     

The BH3 alpha-helical mimic BH3-M6 disrupts Bcl-X(L), Bcl-2, and MCL-1 protein-protein interactions with Bax, Bak, Bad, or Bim and induces apoptosis in a Bax- and Bim-dependent manner

A critical hallmark of cancer cell survival is evasion of apoptosis. This is commonly due to overexpression of anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2, Bcl-X(L), and Mcl-1, which bind to the BH3 α-helical domain of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax, Bak, Bad, and Bim, and inhibit their function. We designed a BH3 α-helical mimetic BH3-M6 that binds to Bcl-X(L) and Mcl-1 and prevents their binding to fluorescently labeled Bak- or Bim-BH3 peptides in vitro. Using several approaches, we demonstrate that BH3-M6 is a pan-Bcl-2 antagonist that inhibits the binding of Bcl-X(L), Bcl-2, and Mcl-1 to multi-domain Bax or Bak, or BH3-only Bim or Bad in cell-free systems and in intact human cancer cells, freeing up pro-apoptotic proteins to induce apoptosis. BH3-M6 disruption of these protein-protein interactions is associated with cytochrome c release from mitochondria, caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage. Using caspase inhibitors and Bax and Bak siRNAs, we demonstrate that BH3-M6-induced apoptosis is caspase- and Bax-, but not Bak-dependent. Furthermore, BH3-M6 disrupts Bcl-X(L)/Bim, Bcl-2/Bim, and Mcl-1/Bim protein-protein interactions and frees up Bim to induce apoptosis in human cancer cells that depend for tumor survival on the neutralization of Bim with Bcl-X(L), Bcl-2, or Mcl-1. Finally, BH3-M6 sensitizes cells to apoptosis induced by the proteasome inhibitor CEP-1612.     

High-throughput fluorescence polarization assay for chemical library screening against anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bfl-1

Overexpression of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins occurs commonly in human cancers. Bfl-1 is highly expressed in some types of malignant cells, contributing significantly to tumor cell survival and chemoresistance. Therefore, it would be desirable to have chemical antagonists of Bfl-1. To this end, we devised a fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) using Bfl-1 protein and fluorescein-conjugated Bid BH3 peptide, which was employed for high-throughput screening of chemical libraries. Approximately 66 000 compounds were screened for the ability to inhibit BH3 peptide binding to Bfl-1, yielding 14 reproducible hits with ≥50% displacement. After dose-response analysis and confirmation using a secondary assay based on time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET), two groups of Bfl-1-specific inhibitors were identified, including chloromaleimide and sulfonylpyrimidine series compounds. FPAs generated for each of the six anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins demonstrated selective binding of both classes of compounds to Bfl-1. Analogs of the sulfonylpyrimidine series were synthesized and compared with the original hit for Bfl-1 binding by both FPAs and TR-FRET assays. The resulting structure-activity relation analysis led to the chemical probe compound CID-2980973 (ML042). Collectively, these findings demonstrate the feasibility of using the HTS assay for discovery of selective chemical inhibitors of Bfl-1.     

Completing the family portrait of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins: crystal structure of human Bfl-1 in complex with Bim

Evasion of apoptosis is recognized as a characteristic of malignant growth. Anti-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family members have therefore emerged as potential therapeutic targets due to their critical role in proliferating cancer cells. Here, we present the crystal structure of Bfl-1, the last anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member to be structurally characterized, in complex with a peptide corresponding to the BH3 region of the pro-apoptotic protein Bim. The structure reveals distinct features at the peptide-binding site, likely to define the binding specificity for pro-apoptotic proteins. Superposition of the Bfl-1:Bim complex with that of Mcl-1:Bim reveals a significant local plasticity of hydrophobic interactions contributed by the Bim peptide, likely to be the basis for the multi specificity of Bim for anti-apoptotic proteins.     

Epstein-Barr Virus Infection and Altered Control of Apoptotic Pathways in Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) represent a spectrum of lymphoid diseases complicating the clinical course of transplant recipients. Most PTLD are Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) associated with viral latency type III. Several in vitro studies have revealed an interaction between EBV latency proteins and molecules of the apoptosis pathway. Data on human PTLD regarding an association between Bcl-2 family proteins and EBV are scarce. We analyzed 60 primary PTLD for expression of 8 anti- (Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, and Mcl-1) and proapoptotic proteins (Bak and Bax), the so-called BH3-only proteins (Bad, Bid, Bim, and Puma), as well as the apoptosis effector cleaved PARP by immunohistochemistry. Bim and cleaved PARP were both significantly (p = 0.001 and p = 5.251e-6) downregulated in EBV-positive compared to EBV-negative PTLD [Bim: 6/40 (15%), cleaved PARP: 10/43 (23%), vs. Bim: 13/16 (81%), cleaved PARP: 12/17 (71%)]. Additionally, we observed a tendency toward increased Bcl-2 protein expression (p = 0.24) in EBV-positive PTLD. Hence, we provide evidence of a distinct regulation of Bcl-2 family proteins in EBV-positive versus negative PTLD. The low-expression pattern of the proapoptotic proteins Bim and cleaved PARP together with the high-expression pattern of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 by trend in EBV-positive tumor cells suggests disruption of the apoptotic pathway by EBV in PTLD, promoting survival signals in the host cells.     

A specific isozyme of 2'-5' oligoadenylate synthetase is a dual function proapoptotic protein of the Bcl-2 family

2-5(A) synthetases are a family of interferon-induced enzymes that polymerize ATP into 2'-5' linked oligoadenylates that activate RNase L and cause mRNA degradation. Because they all can synthesize 2-5(A), the reason for the existence of so many synthetase isozymes is unclear. Here we report that the 9-2 isozyme of 2-5(A) synthetase has an additional activity: it promotes apoptosis in mammalian cells. The proapoptotic activity of 9-2 was isozyme-specific and enzyme activity-independent. The 9-2-expressing cells exhibited many properties of cells undergoing apoptosis, such as DNA fragmentation, caspase activation, and poly ADP-ribose polymerase and lamin B cleavage. The isozyme-specific carboxyl-terminal tail of the 9-2 protein was shown, by molecular modeling, to contain a Bcl-2 homology 3 (BH3) domain, suggesting that it may be able to interact with members of the Bcl-2 family that contain BH1 and BH2 domains. Co-immunoprecipitate assays and confocal microscopy showed that 9-2 can indeed interact with the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bclx(L) in vivo and in vitro. Mutations in the BH3 domain that eliminated the 9-2-Bcl-2 amd 9-2-Bclx(L) interactions also eliminated the apoptotic activity of 9-2. Thus, we have identified an interferon-induced dual function protein of the Bcl-2 family that can synthesize 2-5(A) and promote cellular apoptosis independently. Moreover, the cellular abundance of this protein is regulated by alternative splicing; the other isozymes encoded by the same gene are not proapoptotic.     

Determinants of BH3 Binding Specificity for Mcl-1 versus Bcl-xL

Interactions among Bcl-2 family proteins are important for regulating apoptosis. Prosurvival members of the family interact with proapoptotic BH3 (Bcl-2-homology-3)-only members, inhibiting execution of cell death through the mitochondrial pathway. Structurally, this interaction is mediated by binding of the α-helical BH3 region of the proapoptotic proteins to a conserved hydrophobic groove on the prosurvival proteins. Native BH3-only proteins exhibit selectivity in binding prosurvival members, as do small molecules that block these interactions. Understanding the sequence and structural basis of interaction specificity in this family is important, as it may allow the prediction of new Bcl-2 family associations and/or the design of new classes of selective inhibitors to serve as reagents or therapeutics. In this work, we used two complementary techniques—yeast surface display screening from combinatorial peptide libraries and SPOT peptide array analysis—to elucidate specificity determinants for binding to Bcl-x_Lversus Mcl-1, two prominent prosurvival proteins. We screened a randomized library and identified BH3 peptides that bound to either Mcl-1 or Bcl-x_L selectively or to both with high affinity. The peptides competed with native ligands for binding into the conserved hydrophobic groove, as illustrated in detail by a crystal structure of a specific peptide bound to Mcl-1. Mcl-1-selective peptides from the screen were highly specific for binding Mcl-1 in preference to Bcl-x_L, Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Bfl-1, whereas Bcl-x_L-selective peptides showed some cross-interaction with related proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-w. Mutational analyses using SPOT arrays revealed the effects of 170 point mutations made in the background of a peptide derived from the BH3 region of Bim, and a simple predictive model constructed using these data explained much of the specificity observed in our Mcl-1 versus Bcl-x_L binders.     

Targeting Bax interaction sites reveals that only homo-oligomerization sites are essential for its activation

Bax is a proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member that has a central role in the initiation of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. However, the mechanism of Bax activation during apoptosis remains unsettled. It is believed that the activation of Bax is mediated by either dissociation from prosurvival Bcl-2 family members, or direct association with BH3-only members. Several interaction sites on Bax that mediate its interactions with other Bcl-2 family members, as well as its proapoptotic activity, have been identified in previous studies by other groups. To rigorously investigate the functional role of these interaction sites, we knocked in their respective mutants using HCT116 colon cancer cells, in which apoptosis induced by several stimuli is strictly Bax-dependent. Bax-mediated apoptosis was intact upon knock-in (KI) of K21E and D33A, which were shown to block the interaction of Bax with BH3-only activators. Apoptosis was partially reduced by KI of D68R, which impairs the interaction of Bax with prosurvival members, and S184V, a constitutively mitochondria-targeting mutant. In contrast, apoptosis was largely suppressed by KI of L70A/D71A, which blocks homo-oligomerization of Bax and its binding to prosurvival Bcl-2 family proteins. Collectively, our results suggest that the activation of endogenous Bax in HCT116 cells is dependent on its homo-oligomerization sites, but not those previously shown to interact with BH3-only activators or prosurvival proteins only. We therefore postulate that critical interaction sites yet to be identified, or mechanisms other than protein-protein interactions, need to be pursued to delineate the mechanism of Bax activation during apoptosis.